Singer-Songwriters in Slovenia: An Ethnomusicological Study

Using ethnomusicological approach, the article tries to answer two questions: first, who are indeed Slovenian Singer-songwriters of today, and second: which is the right way of approaching them through research. T . K L O B Č A R • S I N G E R S O N G W R I T E R S I N . . .

After the appearance within Anglo-American context, the term singer-songwriter soon gained its presence in other countries as well.Singer-songwriter is "used since the late 1950s to describe those mainly American and British singing composer-performers, often with roots in folk, country and blues, whose music and lyrics are considered inseparable from their performances." 6Yugoslavian artists of the time -Tomaž Pengov, Tomaž Domicelj, 7 Bogdana Herman, Jani Kovačič, Marko Brecelj (from Slovenia), Arsen Dedić, Ibrica Jusić, Ivica Percl (from Croatia) and countless others -were influenced by several Anglo-American singer-songwriters: Pete Seeger, Bob Dylan, Joni Mitchell and others.The influence came from other sources, too: singer-songwriters from other parts of the world (e.g.Víctor Jara from Chile 8 ), other musical genres and other arts.
The terms used in other languages do not always cover the same set of meanings as Anglo-American singer-songwriter.Defining the limits of a certain genre or term is difficult enough even within one language: "[A] musical genre has different meanings for different people or at least that, even if it can denote the same thing for different people, it connotes diverse things." 9Speaking of Italian cantautore, Franco Fabbri states that "the terms used to indicate musical genres are extremely difficult to translate, and have different meanings in different languages and cultures: here a term not only connotes different things for two different people -according to the diversity of their interests in the denoted object and therefore according to the diverse processes of understanding involved -but precisely denotes two different things." 10he development of its meaning in Italian is explained by Marco Santoro and Marco Solaroli: "The word cantautore originally referred to a very small set of singers who were also authors of the music of their songs.[…] If at the beginning it was a rather empty label, a commercial slogan exploiting one technical feature, over a few years cantautore became a powerful code charged with a host of cultural meanings and marked by a symbolic power that could be used to discriminate between singers in the field of popular music according to the qualities of their songs.In some ways, the word brought forwards its referent, the coding practices being constitutive of a new web of meanings."11 The development of the set of meanings resulted in the following outcome: "By the mid-1960s, cantautore no longer designated simply a singer who was also a songwriter, but the singer and the songwriter of a different song, something that -by its very distinguished existence -could redefine (and circumscribe) the boundaries of 'commercial' or a more obviously 'light' music."12 The term cantautore can be found as kantavtor 13 in Slovenian and other South-Slavic 6 Oxford Music Online, s.v."singer-songwriter", accessed 18 September, 2012, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.7 Domicelj translated several songs of American singer-songwriters, such as Pete Seeger's "Where have all the flowers gone" (1967, "Kam so šle vse rožice", sung together with Bogdana Herman).Miha Štamcar, "Trubadurji in uporniki: Slovenski kantavtorji od začetka do danes", Mladina, 1 September, 2013, http://www.mladina.si/97655/trubadurji-in-uporniki/.8 Established the nueva cancion Chilena, became a simbol of resistance after he was killed by the opposing regime in 1973.9 Franco Fabbri and Iain Chambers, "What Kind of Music?," Popular Music 2 (1982): 132. 10 Ibid., 132.11 Marco Santoro and Marco Solaroli, "Authors and Rappers: Italian Hip Hop and the Shifting Boundaries of 'Canzone d'Autore'", Popular Music 26, no. 3 (2007): 466.12 Ibid., 467.13 In this article, I use also the derivatives: kantavtorica (female, sg.), kantavtorji (plural), kantavtorski (adj.), kantavtorstvo (singingsongwriting as a musical process, or as an umbrella term for all aspects of singing-songwriting -as a genre).In the Dictionary of Standard Slovenian Language, only the variant kantavtor is listed, defined as a "composer and singer of own song".
languages. 14In the meaning "singer and the songwriter of a different song" the term was adopted by Yugoslavian music scene. 15Just like in the case of its Italian equivalent, the edges of the term remain unclear and every attempt of defining it more clearly seems to exclude some of the artists that identify themselves as kantavtorji.In the past decades, there were some attempts among the kantavtorji themselves to change the term into something more "Slovenian".Jani Kovačič16 justifies the adequacy of the current term through the process of elimination of the unsuitable ones: godec (musician-fiddler) refers to an instrumentalist, igrc to a comedian; pevec, pevka, pevček, pevkica, popevkar, popevkarica (several versions of the term singer, some of them with bad connotations) only denote the singing aspect, skladatelj (composer) only the composing one.The same goes for the terms with the meaning of poet, and as for the šansonjer (chansonnier), it already contains a relation to a specific genre 17 currently present in the popular music field.He mentions some terms that might be more suitable as the current one: pisecpevec (writer-singer) or bard, igrc, however he finally suggests the persistence with the term already in use -kantavtor. 18Matej Krajnc, on the other hand, suggests a different term: samospevec 19 which combines the meanings of soloist (the prefix samo-) and singer (pevec). 20hile conducting interviews with Slovenian singer-songwriters (and studying their interviews published in the media 21 ), it soon became clear to me that almost all of kantavtorji try to define this term as a way of legitimizing their activity.They usually agree on the essential meaning of the term as an embodiment of poet, musician and performer.However, some other aspects can be singled out, first and foremost the lyrics -Matej Krajnc and Dani Bedrač both stress that kantavtor's lyrics are poetry. 22Socially critical aspect can also be emphasized. 23In his definition, Adi Smolar 24 mentions both: "With the term kantavtor I understand a person who creates music, creates lyrics and also performs.But this is not enough.Lyrics are very important, and they have to be engaged as much as possible.So they are not meant only for entertainment, but also for educating or mediating kantavtor's views of life, expressed through the environment in which [kantavtor] lives." 25 Most of them would agree that playing an instrument -usually guitar -while performing is one of the characteristics of kantavtor. 26For a thorough categorisation of kantavtorji, all the above mentioned aspects should be taken into consideration, still more: a disambiguation based on song typology, musical style, performance practices and other aspects would show some of the artists fit certain stereotypic labels, such as protest singer, storyteller, torch singer and so on.However, this generalization would probably result in ignoring some aspects of their musicking, not to mention those artists who would not fit into these categories.Therefore, I decided to avoid this sort of categorisation.
The do-it-yourself (DIY) process is essential for this type of musicking; not just in terms of creating and performing, but also when it comes to arranging, marketing, and other tasks involved in the process.Just like their Italian neighbours, kantavtorji tend to stay outside of the mainstream; and the explanation of cantautori seems to fit them perfectly: "despite being positioned within the music business field, cantautori stood at a distance from it in order to develop cultural projects that presupposed and produced a relative autonomy from market constraints, evoking the consolidated icon of the artist, with his professional ideology and his social aura." 27ntil recently, kantavtor was not accepted as an official profession by Slovenian administration, and kantavtorji themselves devoted to the task of legitimizing it.As freelancers applying for government funding, they were subjected to the same criterion as other artists (either singers, composers or poets), while not really fitting the criteria for any of them.The Cultural Ministry's legitimation 28 makes these applications easier.Because of the unprofitable nature of their work, most of the kantavtorji support themselves with a job in some other profession.That adds to the difficulty of defining the noun kantavtor and labelling artists as such (this is usually not their only activity) -however defining their creative process -their musicking -would be slightly easier.

Applying ethnomusicological research approach
Drawing on the various definitions of and/or by Slovenian kantavtorji, three essential elements can be deduced from their musicking: lyrics, music and performance.A comprehensive research should take into consideration all three of them, because all three are the potential bearers of the meaning of a certain song.T .
After the decision which artists are to be included in the research, the selection of research methods follows: from ethnomusicological perspective, the combination of anthropological (interviews, participant observation) and musicological methods (textual analysis) takes place, not excluding the historical, sociological and some other aspects to ensure the coverage of both the historical and spatial contexts.Henceforth, this article focuses on textual analysis of two selected songs which should serve as models for explaining the meaning and purpose of a certain performance.
Textual analysis includes both the music and the lyrics.However the history of popular music research is dominated by lyric analysis. 29The lyrics mediate the story, and most of the kantavtorji would agree that their stories represent the most important part of their songs: [W]e're not trying to be good singers, but to be good interpreters of lyrics.
[…] You have to be convincing when mediating your lyrics: people have to believe you.Therefore, it's not about some serious tests of vocal chords; the message is that really matters.[…] When you focus on a story, the most important thing is to tell this story. 30his is also the case in Anglo-American researches of singer-songwriters.Roy Shuker mentions the premise of the lyrics in his short explanation of (Anglo-American) singersongwriters: "An emphasis on lyrics has resulted in the work of such performers often being referred to as song poems, accorded auteur status, and made the subject of intensive lyric analysis." 31The previously mentioned emphasis on the kantavtor's lyrics as poetry is one of the reasons for neglecting other aspects of their musicking. 32As for music, it is not present only in form of an accompaniment, but is an integral part of the musicking: it appears as melody, rhythm, metre, tempo, harmony, timbre and pitch.These parameters are present in the complex intertwinement of lyrics, music and performance that manifests itself as kantavtorstvo.Therefore, a song cannot be explained merely as a specific intertwinement of music and lyrics, the performative aspect is also crucial; in Christopher Small's 33 terms: "[T]he performance does not exist in order to present musical works, but rather, musical works exist in order to give performers something to perform." 34 The dominating discipline in popular music studies was sociology: "In the 1950s and 1960s, for example, the tiny field of the sociology of popular music was dominated by analyses of song words.Sociologists concentrated on songs (rather than singers or audiences) because they could be studied with a familiar cultural research method, content analysis, and as they mostly lacked the ability to distinguish songs in musical terms, content analysts, by default, had to measure trends by reference to lyrics.It was through their words that hit records were taken to make their social mark.To emphasize the most important characteristics, each performed song demands a proper analytical approach: the analysis should therefore focus on elements which make this particular musicking meaningful: the lyrics, the song's harmonic and melodic structure, rhythm, tempo, the performative routine or any other element.To illustrate two (of many possible) approaches, two songs by two artists are analysed in the following chapters.

Boštjan Narat 35 -"Romeo Julija": Not just the lyrics mediating the idea
Picture 1: Boštjan Narat. 36e first selected example embodies some of the potential aspects of the intertwinement of lyrical, musical and performative elements that appear in kantavtorstvo.Boštjan Narat himself often stresses the importance of lyrics in his songs: "In kantavtorstvo, everything stands and falls on lyrics.Lyrics should have the same expressive power with or without music." 37And yet, as it is evident from this performance, 38 the musical part of the song contains the same ideas; in a way, the music supports the ideas of the lyrics.Similarly, the performative elements enhance the message.The song "Romeo Julija" is the last song from the author's album Konec sveta vedno pride nenapovedano (2012). 39he title itself indicates a duality: "Julija" can mean either "Juliet" or "in July".The whole song can be explained in two ways: the three verses 40 describe what Romeo does in June and July, or what Romeo and Juliet do in June. 41The duality of the meaning is redoubled with a contrast within each of these two interpretations: when "Julija" means "Juliet", we have a contrast between her happenings and Romeo's happenings.And in the case of Romeo in June or July, there's a contrast between his doings in either of these two months.The banality of the verses' content is reflected in the chorus, which offers a moralized statement of the absurdity of summer love.The repetition of the chorus 42 enforces the impression of banality.The latter is evident also from the use of vulgarisms 43 and various other expressions. 44The translation of the lyrics 45 is the following: In June, Romeo stands under the window Cursing the past and drinking absinth, In July / Juliet in a room with closed windows Waits for the dark and is being treated for gout.In June, Romeo writes poems, Because he knows a letter is stronger than a horse.In July / Juliet reads trivial novels, Forgetting the word, despising memory.Summer love is a poor solace, A thing to forget, a pure eyewash.It's here just for you, but also without you.In July / Juliet Romeo is a son of a bitch.

Romeo wants to chase clouds Which keep bringing rain in June.
39 Boštjan Narat, Konec sveta vedno pride nenapovedano, Pivec, PIV CD 004, 2012, compact disc.40 First two consist of 8 lines, and the third of 4 lines.41 Except for the last verse in the chorus, which makes no sense if we read it as Juliet instead of In July.42 The chorus appears after each of the three verses, the last appearance is doubled and enhanced with a double repetition of the last line -the second time with an alternate ending -words "a nobody" instead of "son of a bitch".43 Such as "kurbin sin" -"son of a bitch" and "pičkin dim" -"a nobody", word-for-word translation would be "cunt smoke".44 Such as "drinking absinth", "being treated for gout", "reads trivial novels", "cheap advertisement/ from a free magazine from male toilets".In July/Juliet gazes over the Sun's shoulder, Escaping the heat and cursing the old age.
In June, Romeo walks the streets Straight and in the front page style.
In July/Juliet is only a cheap advertisement Of a free magazine from male toilets.
Summer love is a poor solace, A thing to forget, a pure eyewash.It's here just for you, but also without you.
In July / Juliet Romeo is a son of a bitch.
In this particular performance, kantavtor starts with the introduction of a song, accompanied by the guitar. 46His explanation of the song offers only the first possible interpretation, as he is counting on the audience to extract the second meaning by themselves.This introduction is not included in the studio recording; its content also varies from one performance to another.
Transcription of the guitar part of the repeating two bars form the introduction: Picture 2: Guitar part of the Introduction.
46 Composed of an undetermined repetition of two bars, in this case it repeats 6 times, there is a short pause after the 4 th repetition, and the 6 th repetition is finished with a ritardando.The same material appears before the second and the third strophe as well (each time repeated once -formed of 4 bars altogether).
T .The accompaniment of the "Romeo in June" part (from here on: Part 1) of the verse is the same as the introduction.However, the "Romeo in July / Juliet in June" part (from here on: Part 2) has a different setting.In Part 1, the melody of the voice is circulating in thirds of indefinable quality -it is not clear whether this part is set in minor or major: The repeating sequence of the accompaniment offers a contrast to the voice; the resulting dissonant combination serves as a contrast to the consonant Part 2 of the verses.The accompaniment of the Part 2 is formed by the chord sequence in C minor: I -V / V -V.The pronounciation of the consonants also differs: in Part 1, certain consonants 47 are explicitly pronounced, while in Part 2 they are less emphasized, thus the narration of Part 2 sounds softer than in the Part 1.In both parts, the rhythmical elements are similar; the tempo is steady and the rhythm of the melody is close to speech, more or less equalized with the rhythm of the lyrics.
The main idea of this song is duality (including the contrast between two elements).In lyrics, this duality is clearly visible.The same goes for music and performance: the contrast between two exchanging parts of the verse is set on melodic and harmonic level and with the characteristics of the narration: The uneasiness of all these contrasts is resolved in the chorus.At the end of every verse, there is an additional bar which prolongs the suspense before the chorus.This suspense is enhanced after the third (shortened) verse; the Part 2 narration of the last line of the third verse ("Approximate loves are like an old, lame joke") equalizes with the narration of the Part 1: while ritardando is added, the voice is harder and closer to speech, the dominant chords (the second chord has an added sixth step) are plucked 47 Sibilants c, s, z and č, š, ž.
strongly and a short pause follows the cadenza. 48he chorus is clearly in Major, although the major third step sometimes lowers and becomes a blue note, connecting the chorus with the Part 1.The voice is no longer lingering between talking and singing, which is reminiscent of the narration in Part 2. The chord progression is simple, set in C major: I -I 6 4 -IV -I repeated once, then I -vi -IV -V -I.The rhythm slightly changes and leans into binary (in contrast to the ternary tendency from the verse).At the last repetitions of the last line at the end of the song, there is a pause before the words "a nobody", and the quickly plucked C7 chord leaves the impression of an open ending.
As shown in the analysis, the lyrical, musical and performative elements all work towards representation of the song's idea: the duality (indicated with the use of archetypical love couple Romeo and Juliet) serves to demonstrate the contrasts, however the banality of the motive of summer love represented in the chorus seems to overshadow the importance of these contrasts in verses.

Adi Smolar -Pesem o rolici papirja: The importance of a live performance
Picture 4: Adi Smolar. 49 In Studying Popular Music, Richard Middleton warns about the convenient use of notation in music analysis: "[T]he score comes to be seen as 'the music', or perhaps the music in an ideal form." 50In the case of kantavtorji, similar problem emerges with finding the "ideal form" of a certain song in the form of studio recording (especially audio 51 as the performance is the third essential element of kantavtorstvo (together with lyrics and music, as shown above).In addition, every performance is unique and therefore the results from the analysis of one performance would not be applicable to all of the potential performances of a certain song.An analysis of a performed song therefore serves as a comparative example for other performances.
The following example illustrates the importance of including some aspects of the performance into textual analysis."Pesem o rolici papirja" ("The Paper Roll Song") was written by Adi Smolar on the occasion of 130 years of the toilet paper factory Paloma. 52A year later, in 2004, the author included it in his album Vse je krasno. 53It's an example of a song which outgrew its original context and became one of his most popular songs.
From the harmonic perspective, the song is relatively simple and easy to recreate: instructions including lyrics and chord progression (although simplified) can be found online.The lyrics were even published as a children book -which emphasizes the educational message: "Not only the great deeds matter, but small deeds, small attentions." 54he regular verse-chorus song form (of even number of bars) is often breached here, leaving out the unnecessary bars without the vocal.The simplicity and the importance of the message correspond to the author's opinion on the unnecessary distractions within a song: 55 [I]f an ensemble is included [in performance], an occasional solo is welcome.But if I'm on the stage alone, and if I'd interrupt certain songs with some solo insertions (which I could do) -I rarely do that, I rarely take such breaks.[…] Mostly I just introduce the story, and if there is [such an insertion], then there is "La la la" instead of an actual solo -that "La la la", like a small chorus.I believe that is a good thing because it keeps the audience interested.[…] The role of the guitar is accompaniment -accompaniment of lyrics, of story.Sometimes […] it seems like you are changing three, four chords.But that's also mastery.Making this many interesting songs with so few chords is not easy.[…] It happens, that there is a "Dim[inished seventh chord]" in there -and some kind of interesting chord -but it disturbs me.Because it sounds like bragging […].I've got a feeling that this would make me lose that simple credibility.And I throw it out.Similarly to the previous example, a performance of "The Paper Roll Song" includes introductory text, but here it outgrows an explanatory function: the kantavtor gives specific instructions to the audience.These instructions are explained at every performance of this song and therefore represent its essential part. 56For the purpose of this analysis, I took into account two performances and compared their elements.In first case (from now on, Example 1) Adi Smolar starts introducing the song in a clear and soft voice: If good-hearted, you can do a lot of good even with small things.Even with a toilet paper roll, a lot can be done.So, as a cheer-up for all of us, to be kind to each other even in small deeds.The Paper Roll Song. 57troduction is similar in the Example 2: Not only great deeds and large sums of money matter.Small acts of attention are very important in everyday life.To brighten life with friendly greetings, with friendly relations amongst ourselves.Or with a paper roll. 58ecific instructions to the audience follow in the next sentence; his narration is more serious, he makes sure the audience is paying attention: When I sing "la la la", you clap, when I sing the verse, you don't clap, when I shut up, you clap very loudly! 59When I'm singing "la la la", you clap, when I sing something else, you don't clap.When I shut up at the end, you clap very loudly! 60ter receiving a positive feedback (laughter) from the audience, he continues with a few words which lead to the beginning of the song: Are you ready?Let's go … 61 Are you ready?Can I start?Three, four … 62 In Table 2, formal structure of the song is introduced.The song starts with the chorus immediately introducing the vocal.The chord progression consists of interchanging of first and forth degree, finally landing on the sixth degree.The chorus is concluded with a sequence of IV -I -V 6 5 -I repeating once.Before the last tonic, the dominant is prolonged to create more suspense.The guitar picking is executed with plucking of the whole chord with the bass note interchanging with the top notes of the chord without bass.The tone of the voice is friendly, and the tempo is steady (the tempo of the Example 1 is slightly faster than in Example 2).The chorus is accompanied by the audience's rhythmical clapping.
In the verses, the rhythm of the vocal is not completely confined by the bars; instead, it flows with the words.Kantavtor offers a sincere and kind narration of his words.The chord progression and the melody are the same in every verse.A lady with a puppy passed me And he left two small numbers on the street.This is not good for a promenade, I said to myself, Quickly picked them up and carried to the rubbish.
And the paper roll came in handy.
And the paper roll came in handy.
The same as Verse 1 Verse 3 I met a homeless man drinking wine, But clumsy as he was, he was pouring it on his chin.I gave him two sheets to wipe it And to wipe dust from his shoes.
And the paper roll came in handy.
And the paper roll came in handy.
At the end of the last line, the performer reminds the audience to join the performance of the chorus. 64 The same as Verse 1

Chorus
As before; before the end of it, he thanks to the audience. 3s the first time As the first time Verse 4 Kids were playing in the park.Running around, their noses dripping.I hurried there, to the first boy, Handed them the sheets for their noses and cheeks.He addresses the audience again; 65 the next two lines are sung together: And the paper roll came in handy.
And the paper roll came in handy.
The same as Verse 1 Verse 5 Little lady was crying on a bench, Because another girl took her boyfriend.I gave her lots of sheets to ease her pain, If you wipe your tears right, the lipstick doesn't smear.
And the paper roll came in handy.
And the paper roll came in handy.
The same as Verse 1 Verse 6 Only five sheets were left at the end.Enough for this song, not for a sonnet.I took a pen, wrote on the sheets I shortly described what happened that day.
How the paper roll came in handy.
How the paper roll came in handy.
Before the end of the last bar, he reminds the audience: "It's 'la la la' again, let's clap." The same as Verse 1

Chorus
As above.The last bar slides in a ritardando, slowing the tempo altogether.

As the first time
As the first time Verse 7 At the end, I'm adding a request for you: You should feel sorry for those who have nothing to eat.There are many children among them!I'm asking you to give Some money, at least for a meal -for these golden buttocks.So they'll ever be able to use a paper roll.So they'll ever be able to use a paper roll.
The same as Verse 1 Table 2: Formal structure of "The Paper Roll Song". 67 Verse 7, the accompaniment is quieter, the picking becomes thinner; the last chord (C) is plucked as an arpeggio after the voice already finishes.The voice is closer to speech and occasionally steps out of the previous form both melodically and rhythmically. 68hus, the last verse is more carefully interpreted, acting as a plea to the audience.
the only variations might be in a form of added instrumental measures after the verses, different comments when addressing the audience during the performance, 71 and tempo (of the whole performance or of the last verse).The involvement of the audience also varies -it may depend on the context (the performance at the Red Cross concert -Example 1 -in a huge setting of the Gallus hall of Cankarjev Dom 72 and transmitted live on the public television turns out more formal than the intimate performance at DSR 73 members meeting with only some 20-30 listeners -Example 2) or on the audience's familiarity with the song (at FAG 74 Griže, some members of the audience sing along all the time).This is not the only case in which Adi Smolar includes the audience in his performance; his introductions of songs are often humorous to keep the listeners interested, or he encourages them to participate in singing the chorus (this can be seen at any live performance of his).Other artists may have different approaches -in fact, every kantavtor has his or her own way of interaction with the listeners.Verbal interaction during songs is less common (besides Adi Smolar, it can be witnessed e.g. at the Jani Kovačič's performances) since this kind of interaction interferes with the narration of the lyrics.Hence, the most convenient part of the performance for the artist's interaction with the listeners remains in the form of introduction before each song (rarely at the end of the songs -because of the applause).Including all these notions in a research correspond to Small's concept of musicking: We take into account not just what the performers are doing and certainly not just the piece that is being played or what the composer, should there be one, has done.We begin to see a musical performance as an encounter between human beings that takes place through the medium of sounds organized in specific ways.Like all human encounters, it takes place in a physical and a social setting, and those, too, have to be taken into account when we ask what meanings are being generated by a performance.
[…] That being so, it is not enough to ask, What is the nature or the meaning of this work of music?[…] Using a concept of musicking as a human encounter, we can ask the wider and more interesting question: What does it mean when this performance (of this work) takes place at this time, in this place, with these participants? 75

Conclusion
In conclusion, Kantavtorstvo is a notion determined by three essential points: first, the identification of authors with their messages by the audience; second, the message (sometimes equalized with lyrics; the message should outweigh the entertaining and aesthetic function of a song); and third, the do-it-yourself process.However complex the definition of the term kantavtor is, finding the answer to the question "Who are Slovenian singer-songwriters" seems essential for the quest of finding the right research approach.All this time, my primary research goal remains to describe and explain their creative process -kantavtorstvo: the musicking, not just the music or lyrics, and the meaning of this musicking.
Ethnomusicological approach to the task of researching kantavtorstvo includes the use of several interdisciplinary methods and approaches.The method of textual analysis described above explains this musicking from within.In order to contextualize the performances, some other methods such as interviews and participant observation are used.My focus is on the performers, not on their audience. 76Focusing on individual performers is not uncommon in recent ethnomusicological research; as Jesse D. Ruskin and Timothy Rice 77 notice from the comparison of several musical ethnographies: The notion that musical cultures are fragmented and deterritorialized seems to drive the now common -indeed, practically unavoidable -ethnomusicological study of individuals.No matter the reason, our survey of musical ethnographies points to how ethnomusicologists seek to understand the cultures and communities they study by paying careful and respectful attention to the individual musicians they encounter in their research.
While conducting actual research, other motives can emerge: conducting interviews could for example become a very personally involved process.In addition, to conduct a research of a musicking without any temporal distance (especially the one with such a small group of representatives as kantavtorstvo), one can scarcely stay uninvolved in current issues.Instead of worrying about keeping an indifferent approach, I finally decided to assume another stand, the one of applied ethnomusicology: all things considered, advocating the ideas and goals of these artists does not contradict the main research objective.As long as my approach avoids carrying out the propaganda of kantavtorstvo and my personal likes or dislikes do not blur my perspective; as long as I keep to the scientific criterion of my discipline and its ethical code, my research of kantavtorstvo offers an interpretative 78 contribution to my discipline.
76 To determine the impact on the audience, a simple questionnaire would not suffice; instead, individual interviews would have to be conducted with a broad range of individuals.77 Jesse D. Ruskin and Timothy Rice: "The Individual in Musical Ethnography."Ethnomusicology 56, no. 2 (2012): 318.78 "Interpretive methods of research start from the position that our knowledge of reality, including the domain of human action, is a social construction by human actors and that this applies equally to researchers.Thus there is no objective reality which can be discovered by researchers and replicated by others, in contrast to the assumptions of positivist science.Our theories concerning reality are ways of making sense of the world and shared meanings are a form of intersubjectivity rather than objectivity.Interpretivism is thus an epistemological position, concerned with approaches to the understanding of reality and asserting that all such knowledge is necessarily a social construction and thus subjective."Geoff Walsham, Interpretative information systems in organizations (Chichester: Wiley, 1993), 10. T The introduction is twofold: the bass line forms two tritons separated by a semitone: C -G -F sharp and B -G flat -F.The upper two tones (in the first seven broken chords) form major second B flat -C, and in the last bar a minor second A sharp -B.

51
Studio recording could be used as a comparative source together with live performances.52 Sladkogorčan: Glasilo delavcev Palome, sladkogorske tovarne papirja, d.d.Sladki Vrh, July 2003, 8. 53 Adi Smolar, Vse je krasno, Nika Records, NR-CD-S-0171, 2004, compact disc.54 Interview with Adi Smolar, 5 March, 2014.55 Ibid.56The studio recording does not include the introductory text or the instructions for the audience; in my opinion, the specific instructions were added to the performance spontaneously and over the years became more or less an integral part of this song.
topic, instructions for clapping; after receiving the feedback (laughter), he starts with the chorus./ / Chorus Consists of repeating la la la and the audience's clapping; at the end of chorus, the performer thanks the audience.roll, a paper roll.I went through the town with it, with the paper roll.I'll carry it home, I whispered to myself, I'll put it next to the toilet.It will come in handy, the paper roll.It will come in handy, the paper roll.
. 30 Interview with Adi Smolar, 5 March, 2014.31 Roy Shuker, Popular Music: The Key Concepts (Abingdon; New York: Routledge, 2005), 248.32 I hereby agree with Philip Tagg who stated in 1982: "Studying popular music is an interdisciplinary matter.Musicology still lags behind other disciplines in the field, especially sociology.[… It] should be stated at the outset that no analysis of musical discourse can be considered complete without consideration of social, psychological, visual, gestural, ritual, technical, historical, economic and linguistic aspects relevant to the genre, function, style, (re-)performance situation and listening attitude connected with the sound event being studied."Philip Tagg, "Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice," Popular Music 2 (1982): 40.33 Christopher Small, widely perceived as a representative of cultural musicology, received with his concept of musicking a " Simon Frith, "Why do Songs have Words", in Simon Frith, Music for Pleasure: Essays in the Sociology of Pop (New York: Routledge, 1988), 105notable attention within the ethnomusicological circles.Both cultural musicology and ethnomusicology are concerned with the notions of music and culture, and are influencing each other.In his seminal book The Anthropology of music (1964), Alan P. Merriam defined ethnomusicology as "the study of music in culture" and this initiated the move of the research focus from traditional music to any music.This article considers a segment of popular music and proves the above claim.34 Small, Musicking, 8.

Table 1 :
The contrasts between two parts of the verse.