IS VEGAN DIET APPROPRIATE FOR COMPETITIVE ARTISTIC GYMNASTS?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.52165/sgj.10.2.153-178Keywords:
vegan diet, gymnasts, health, body weight, athletic abilitieAbstract
The majority of scientific evidence strongly associates a well-planned vegan diet with health, a successful control of body weight, a preventive measure, and, in some cases, with the termination and the reverse of the most common chronic non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, certain cancers, and some other diseases. Numerous athletes have accepted these findings and adopted this lifestyle choice. Furthermore, the athletes choose well-planned vegan diet with the intention of optimizing their athletic abilities. The position of The British Dietetic Association (BDA) and The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) on the vegetarian diet states that well-planned vegetarian diets, including the vegan diet, are healthy and nutritionally adequate and appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence and older adulthood. What is more, AND repeats its view from nearly ten years ago on the appropriateness of the vegan diet for the needs of athletes. The aim of this article is to justify the appropriateness of a well-planned vegan diet for the needs for competitive artistic gymnasts and to do so with a relative scientific transparency.
Metrics
Downloads
References
Agnoli, C., Baroni, L., Bertini, I., Ciappellano, S., Fabbri, A., Papa, M. et al. (2017). Position paper on vegetarian diets from the working group of the Italian Society of Human Nutrition. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 27(12), 1037–1052.
AHA (2014). Vegetarian Diets. Obtained on 27th December 2014 from http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/NutritionCenter/Vegetarian-Diets_UCM_306032_Article.jsp#.
Anand, P., Kunnumakara, A.B., Sundaram, C., Harikumar, K.B., Tharakan, S.T., Lai, O.S., et al. (2008). Cancer is a Preventable Disease that Requires Major Lifestyle Changes. Pharmaceutical Research, 25(9), 2097–2116.
Anderson, C., & Petrie, T.A. (2012). Prevalence of disordered eating and pathogenic weight control behaviors among NCAA division I female collegiate gymnasts and swimmers. Res Q Exerc Sport, 83(1), 120–4.
Anderson, J.W., & Ward, K. (1979). High-carbohydrate, high-fiber diets for insulin-treated men with diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr, 32(11), 2312–2321.
Atiković, A., Delaš Kalinski, S., & Čuk, I. (2017). Age trends in artistic gymnastic across world championships and the olympic games from 2003 to 2016. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 9(3), 251–263.
Babault, N., Paizis, G., Deley, G., Guérin-Deremaux, L., Saniez, M-H., Lefranc-Millot, C., et al. (2015). Pea proteins oral supplementation promotes muscle thickness gains during resistance training: a double blind, randomized, Placebo controlled clinical trial vs Whey protein.” Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(1), 3.
Barnard, N.D., Cohen, J., Jenkins, D.J., Turner-McGrievy, G., Gloede, L., Green, A., & Ferdowsian, H. (2009). A low-fat vegan diet and a conventional diabetes diet in the treatment of type 2 diabetes: a randomized, controlled, 74-wk clinical trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), 1588S–1596S.
Barnard, N.D., Levin, S.M., & Yokoyama, Y. (2015). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Changes in Body Weight in Clinical Trials of Vegetarian Diets. J Acad Nutr Diet, 115(6), 954–69.
Barnard, R.J., Gonzalez, J.H., Liva, M.E., & Ngo, T.H. (2006). Effects of low-fat, high-fiber diet and exercise program on breast cancer risk factors in vivo and tumor cell growth and apoptosis in vitro. Nutr Cancer, 55(1), 28–34.
Batatinha, H.A.P., da Costa, C.E., de França, E., Dias, I.R., Ladeira, A.P.X., Rodrigues, B. et al. (2013). Carbohydrate use and reduction in number of balance beam falls: implications for mental and physical fatigue. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10, 32.
BDA. The Association of UK Dietitians (2017). British Dietetic Association Confirms well-planned vegan diet scan support healthy living in people of all ages. Obtained on 15th August 2017 from https://www.bda.uk.com/news/view?id=179
Beis, Y., Willkomm, L., Ross, R., Bekele, Z., Wolde, B., Fudge, B., et al. (2011). Food and macronutrient intake of elite Ethiopian distance runners. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 8, 7.
Bellavia, A., Stilling, F., & Wolk, A. (2016). High red meat intake and all-cause cardiovascular and cancer mortality: is the risk modified by fruit and vegetable intake? Am J Clin Nutr, 104(4), 1137–1143.
Berkow, S.E., Barnard, N., Eckart, J., & Katcher, H. (2010). Four therapeutic diets: adherence and acceptability. Can J Diet Pract Res, 71(4), 199–204.
Bischoff-Ferrari, H.A., Shao, A., Dawson-Hughes, B., Hathcock, J., Giovannucci, E., & Willet, W.C. (2010). Benefit-risk assessment of vitamin D supplementation. Osteoporos Int, 21(7), 1121–32.
Blankenhorn, D.H., Johnson, R.L., Mack, W.J., el Zein, H.A., & Vailas, L.I. (1990). The influence of diet on the appearance of new lesions in human coronary arteries. JAMA, 263(12), 1646–52.
Bonci, C.M., Bonci, L.J., Granger, L.R., Johnson, C.L., Malina, R.M., Milne, L.W., et al. (2008). National Athletic Trainers’ Association Position Statement: Preventing, Detecting, and Managing Disordered Eating in Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 43(1), 80–108.
Borch, D., Juul-Hindsgaul, N., Veller, M., Astrup, A., Jaskolowski, J., & Ruben, A. (2016). Potatoes and risk of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in apparently healthy adults: a systematic review of clinical intervention and observational studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 104(2), 489–98.
Bovell-Benjamin, A.C. (2007). Sweet potato: a review of its past, present, and future role in human nutrition. Adv Food Nutr Res, 52, 1–59.
Bowman, S.A., & Spence, J.T. (2002). A comparison of low-carbohydrate vs. high-carbohydrate diets: energy restriction, nutrient quality and correlation to body mass index. J Am Coll Nutr, 21(3), 268–74.
Burke, L. (2007). Practical Sport Nutrition. Human Kinetics.
Cermak, N.M., Res, P.T., de Groot, L.C., Saris, W.H., & van Loon, L.J. (2012). Protein supplementation augments the adaptive response of skeletal muscle to resistance-type exercise training: a meta-analysis. Am J Clin Nutr, 96, 1454–64.
Chanson-Rolle, A., Meynier, A., Aubin, F., Lappi, J., Poutanen, K., Vinoy, S., & Braesco, V. (2015). Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Human Studies to Support a Quantitative Recommendation for Whole Grain Intake in Relation to Type 2 Diabetes. PLoS ONE, 10(6), e0131377.
Chen, X., Wei, G., Jalili, T., Metos, J., Giri, A., Cho, M.E., et al. (2016). The Associations of Plant Protein Intake With All-Cause Mortality in CKD. American Journal of Kidney Diseases: The Official Journal of the National Kidney Foundation, 67(3), 423–430.
Chiu, T.H.T., Huang, H.-Y., Chiu, Y.-F., Pan, W.-H., Kao, H.-Y., Chiu, J.P.C., et al. (2014). Taiwanese Vegetarians and Omnivores: Dietary Composition, Prevalence of Diabetes and IFG. PLoS ONE, 9(2), e88547.
Christensen, D.L., Van Hall, G., & Hambraeus, L. (2002). Food and macronutrient intake of male adolescent Kalenjin runners in Kenya. Br J Nutr, 88(6), 711–7.
Clarys, P., Deliens, T., Huybrechts, I., Deriemaeker, P., Vanaelst, B., De Keyzer, W., et al. (2014). Comparison of Nutritional Quality of the Vegan, Vegetarian, Semi-Vegetarian, Pesco-Vegetarian and Omnivorous Diet. Nutrients, 6(3), 1318–1332.
Coelho, G.M., Gomes, A.I., Ribeiro, B.G., & Soares, E.A. (2014). Prevention of eating disorders in female athletes. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 5, 105–113.
Coelho, G.M., Soares, E.A., & Ribeiro, B.G. (2010). Are female athletes at increased risk for disordered eating and its complications? Appetite, 55(3), 379–87.
Craddock, J.C., Probst, Y.C., & Peoples, G.E. (2016). Vegetarian and Omnivorous Nutrition - Comparing Physical Performance. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 26(3), 212–20.
Curry, A. (2008). The Gladiator Diet. How to eat, exercise, and die a violent death. Archaeology, 61(6), abstract.
Dallas, G., Dallas, C., & Simatos, J. (2016). Nutritional status and dietary assessment of elite female artistic and rhythmic gymnasts – a case study. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 8(3), 255–269.
Dermadi-Blackberry, I., Wahlqvist, M.L., Kouris-Blazos, A., Steen, B., Lukito, W., Horie, Y., et al. (2004). Legumes: the most important dietary predictor of survival in older people of different ethnicities. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr, 13(2), 217–20.
Dewell, A., Weidner, G., Sumner, M.D., Barnard, R.J., Marlin, R.O., Daubenmier, J.J., et al. (2007). Relationship of Dietary Protein and Soy Isoflavones to Serum IGF-1 and IGF Binding Proteins in the Prostate Cancer Lifestyle Trial. Nutrition and cancer, 58(1), 35–42.
Dinu, M., Abbate, R., Gensini, G.F., Casini, A., & Sofi, F. (2016). Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: a systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 57(17), 3640–3649.
Doughman, S.D., Krupanidhi, S., & Sanjeevi, C.B. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acids for nutrition and medicine: considering microalgae oil as a vegetarian source of EPA and DHA. Curr Diabetes Rev, 3(3), 198–203.
Drewnowski, A. (2013). New metrics of affordable nutrition: which vegetables provide most nutrients for least cost? J Acad Nutr Diet, 113(9), 1182–7.
Dunaief, D.M., Fuhrman, J., Dunaief, J.L., & Ying, G. (2012). Glycemic and cardiovascular parameters improved in type 2 diabetes with the high nutrient density. Open Journal of Preventive Medicine, 2(3), 364–371.
Esselstyn, C.B. Jr., Gendy, G., Doyle, J., Golubic, M., & Roizen, M.F. (2014). A way to reverse CAD? J Fam Pract, 63(7), 356–364b.
Eyres, L., Eyres, M.F., Chisholm, A., & Brown, R.C. (2016). Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Nutrition Reviews, 74(4), 267–280.
Farmer, B., Larson, B.T., Fulgon, V.L., Rainville, A.J., & Liepa, G.U. (2011). A vegetarian dietary pattern as a nutrient-dense approach to weight management: an analysis of the national health and nutrition examination survey 1999-2004. J Am Diet Assoc, 111(6), 819–27.
Flock, M.R., Harris, W.S., & Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2013). Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: time to establish a dietary reference intake. Nutr Rev, 71(10), 692–707.
Fontana, L., Villareal, D.T., Das, S.K., Smith, S.R., Meydani, S.N., Pittas, A.G., et al. (2016). Effects of 2-year calorie restriction on circulating levels of IGF-1, IGF-binding proteins and cortisol in nonobese men and women: a randomized clinical trial. Aging Cell, 15(1), 22–27.
Freeman, A.M., Morris, P.B., Barnard, N., Esselstyn, C.B., Ros, E., Agatston, A., et al. (2017). Trending Cardiovascular Nutrition Controversies. J Am Coll Cardiol, 69(9), 1172–1187.
Fuhrman, J., & Ferreri, D.M. (2010). Fueling the Vegetarian (Vegan) Athlete. Sports Med, 9(4), 233–241.
Fuhrman, J., & Singer, M. (2015). Improved Cardiovascular Parameter With a Nutrient-Dense, Plant-Rich Diet-Style: A Patient Survey With Illustrative Cases. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 11(3), 264–273
Fuleihan, Gel-H., Bouillon, R., Clarke, B., Chakhtoura, M., Cooper, C., McClung, M., et al. (2015). Serum 25-Hydroxyvitamin D Levels: -Variability, Knowledge Gaps, and the Concept of a Desirable Range. J Bone Miner Res, 30(7), 1119–33.
Gatto, L. (2016). Novak Djokovic: ´I am vegan!´ Obtained on 17th July 2017 from http://www.tennisworldusa.org/news/news/Novak_Djokovic/33113/novak-djokovic-i-am-vegan-/.
Golden, M.H.N. (2002). The Development of Concepts of Malnutrition. J Nutr, 132(7), 2117S–2122S.
GreatVeganAthletes (2017). Thirteen vegan athletes who set World Records or became World Champions. Obtained on 17th July 2017 from http://www.greatveganathletes.com/.
Haider, L.M., Schwingshackl, L., Hoffmann, G., & Ekmekcioglu, C. (2016). The effect of vegetarian diets on iron status in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 1–16.
Haring, B., Selvin, E., Liang, M., Coresh, J., Grams, M.E., Petruski-Ivleva, N., et al. (2017). Dietary Protein Sources and Risk for Incident Chronic Kidney Disease: Results From the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. J Ren Nutr, 27(4), 233–242.
Harris, W.S., Mozaffarian, D., Lefevre, M., Toner, C.D., Colombo, J., Cunnane, S.C., et al. (2009). Towards establishing dietary reference intakes for eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. J Nutr, 139(4), 804S–19S.
Hever, J. (2016). Plant-Based Diets: A Physician’s Guide. Perm J, 20(3), 15–082.
Hever, J., & Cronise, R.J. (2017). Plant-based nutrition for healthcare professionals: implementing diet as a primary modality in the prevention and treatment of chronic disease. Journal of Geriatric Cardiology, 14(5), 355–368.
Holick, M.F. (2007). Vitamin D deficiency. N Engl J Med, 357, 266–81.
Huang, R.-Y., Huang, C.-C., Hu, F.B., & Chavarro, J.E. (2016). Vegetarian Diets and Weight Reduction: a Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 31(1), 109–116.
Jakše, Bo, & Jakše, Ba (2017). Potential benefits of consuming omega-3 fatty acids for artistic gymnasts. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 9(2), 127–152.
Jenkins, D.J., Kemdall, C.W., Popovich, D.G., Vidgen, E., Mehling, C.C., Vuksan, V., et al. (2001). Effect of a very-high-fiber vegetable, fruit, and nut diet on serum lipids and colonic function. Metabolism, 50(4), 494–503.
Joy, J.M., Lowery, R.P., Wilson, J.M., Purpura, M., De Souza, E.O., Wilson, S.M., et al. (2013). The effects of 8 weeks of whey or rice protein supplementation on body composition and exercise performance. Nutr J, 12, 86.
Kahleova, H., Levin, S., & Barnard, N. (2017). Cardio-Metabolic Benefits of Plant-Based Diets. Nutrients, 9(8).
Katz, D.L., & Meller, S. (2014). Can we say what diet is best for health? Annu Rev Public Health, 35, 83–103.
Keum, N., & Giovannucci, E. (2014). Vitamin D supplements and cancer incidence and mortality: a meta-analysis. British Journal of Cancer, 111(5), 976–980.
Kornek, A., Kucharska, A., & Kamela, K. (2016). Analysis of the fatty acid profile of vegetarian and non-vegetarian diet in the context of some diet-related diseases prevention. Wiad Lek, 69(3 pt 2), 483–488.
Leitzmann, C. (2005). Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages? Forum Nutr 57, 147–156.
Levine, M.E., Suarez, J.A., Brandhorst, S., Balasubramanian, P., Cheng, C.W., Madia, F., et al. (2014). Low protein intake is associated with a major reduction in IGF-1, cancer, and overall mortality in the 65 and younger but not older population, Cell Metab, 19(3), 407–417.
Li, Z., Aronson, W.J., Arteaga, J.R., Hong, K., Thames, G., Henning, S.M., et al. (2008). Feasibility of a low-fat/high-fiber diet intervention with soy supplementation in prostate cancer patients after prostatectomy. Eur J Clin Nutr, 62(4), 526–36.
Longo, U.G., Spiezia, F., Maffulli, N., & Denaro, V. (2008). The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian! Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 7(4), 565.
Losch, S., Moghaddam, N., Grossschmidt, K., Risser, D.U., & Kanz, F. (2014). Stable Isotope and trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet. Plos One, 9(10), 1–17.
Louer, L., Elferink-Gemser, M., & Visscher, C. (2012). The perfect elite gymnast, does he exist? A systematic review. Annals Of Research In Sport And Physical Activity, 39–61.
Lovell, G. (2008). Vitamin D status of females in an elite gymnastics program. Clin J Sport Med, 18(2), 159–61.
Lucas, R., & Neale, R. (2014). What is the optimal level of vitamin D? Separating the evidence from the rhetoric. Australian Family Physician, 43(3), 119–122.
Lynch, H.M., Wharton, C.M., & Johnston, C.S. (2016). Cardiorespiratory Fitness and Peak Torque Differences between Vegetarian and Omnivore Endurance Athletes: A Cross-Sectional Study. Nutrients, 8(11), pii: E726.
Ma, Y., Pagoto, S.L., Griffith, J.A., Merriam, P.A., Ockene, I.S., Hafner, A.R., & Olendzki, B.C. (2007). A Dietary Quality Comparison of Popular Weight-Loss Plans. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 107(10), 1786–1791.
Marina, M., & Rodríguez, F.A. (2014). Physiological demands of young women’s competitive gymnastic routines. Biology of Sport, 31(3), 217–222.
McCarty, M.F., Barroso-Aranda, J., & Contreras, F. (2009). The low-methionine content of vegan diets may make methionine restriction feasible as a life extension strategy. Med Hypotheses, 72, 125–128.
McDougall, C., & McDougall, J. (2013). Plant-Based Diets Are Not Nutritionally Deficient. [Letter]. Perm J, 17(4), 93.
McDougall, J. (2015). Athletics in the Spotlight: Low-Carb vs. High Carb. Obtained on 17th July 2017 from https://www.drmcdougall.com/2015/07/31/athletics-in-the-spotlight-low-carb-vs-high-carb/.
McDougall, J., Thomas, L.E., McDougall, C., Moloney, G., Saul, B., Finnell, J.S., et al. (2014). Effects of 7 days on an ad libitum low-fat vegan diet: the McDougall Program cohort. Nutrition Journal, 13, 99.
Mclaren, D. (1974). The great protein fiasco. The Lancet, 304(7872), 93–96.
McMacken, M., & Shah, S. (2017). A plant-based diet for the prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes. J Geriatr Cardiol, 14(5), 342–354.
Melina, V., Craig, W., & Levin, S. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets. J Acad Nutr Diet, 116(12), 1970–1980.
Neff, L.M., Culiner, J., Cunningham‐Rundles, S., Seidman, C., Meehan, D., Maturi, J., et al. (2011). Algal Docosahexaenoic Acid Affects Plasma Lipoprotein Particle Size Distribution in Overweight and Obese Adults. The Journal of Nutrition, 141(2), 207–213.
Nieman, D.C. (1999). Physical fitness and vegetarian diets: is there a relation? Am J Clin Nutr, 70(3 Suppl), 570S–575S.
NIH (2016). National Institute of Health (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services). Vitamin B12. Obtained on 18th July 2017 from https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminB12-HealthProfessional/.
Orlich, M.J., Singh, P.N., Sabaté, J., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Fan, J., Knutsen, S., et al. (2013). Vegetarian Dietary Patterns and Mortality in Adventist Health Study 2. JAMA Internal Medicine, 173(13), 1230–1238.
Ornish, D., Lin, J., Chan, J.M., Epel, E., Kemp, C., Weidner, G. et al. (2013). Effect of comprehensive lifestyle changes on telomerase activity and telomere length in men with biopsy-proven low-risk prostate cancer: 5-year follow-up of a descriptive pilot study. Lancet Oncol, 14(11), 1112–20.
Ornish, D., Scherwitz, L.W., Billings, J.H., Gould, K.L., Merritt, T.A., Sparler, S., et al. (1998). Intensive Lifestyle Changes for Reversal of Coronary Heart Disease. JAMA, 280(23), 2001–2007.
Ornish, D., Weidner, G., Fair, W.R., Marlin, R., Pettengill, E.B., Raisin, C.J., et al. (2005). Intensive lifestyle changes may affect the progression of prostate cancer. J Urol, 174(3), 1065–9; discussion 1069–70.
Ostfeld, R.J. (2017). Definition of a plant-based diet and overview of this special issue. J Geriatr Cardiol, 14, 315.
Pasiakos, S.M., McLellan, T.M., & Lieberman, H.R (2015). The effects of protein supplements on muscle mass, strength, and aerobic and anaerobic power in healthy adults: a systematic review. Sports Med, 45, 111–31.
Phillips, S.M. (2016). The impact of protein quality on the promotion of resistance exercise-induced changes in muscle mass. Nutrition & Metabolism, 13, 64.
Raatz, S.K., Bibus, D., Thomas, W., & Kris-Etherton, P. (2001). Total fat intake modifies plasma fatty acids composition in humans. J Nutr, 131(2), 231–4.
Richter, C.K., Skulas-Ray, A.C., Champagne, C.M., & Kris-Etherton, P.M. (2015). Plant Protein and Animal Proteins: Do They Differentially Affect Cardiovascular Disease Risk? Advances in Nutrition, 6(6), 712–728.
Rizzo, N.S., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., Sabate, J., & Fraser, G.E. (2013). Nutrient Profiles of Vegetarian and Non Vegetarian Dietary Patterns. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 113(12), 1610–1619.
Rizzo, N.S., Sabaté, J., Jaceldo-Siegl, K., & Fraser, G.E. (2011). Vegetarian Dietary Patterns Are Associated With a Lower Risk of Metabolic Syndrome: The Adventist Health Study 2. Diabetes Care, 34(5), 1225–1227.
Rodriguez, N.R., Di Marco, N.M., & Langley, S. (2009) American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Nutrition and athletic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 41, 709–731.
Rogerson, D. (2017). Vegan diets: practical advice for athletes and exercisers. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 36.
Rosen, L.W., & Hough, D.O. (1988). Pathogenic weight-control behaviours of female college gymnasts. Physician & Sportsmedicine, 16, 141–144.
Ross, A.C., Taylor, C.L., Yaktine, A.L., & Del Valle, H.B. (2011). Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Institute of Medicine (US) Committee to Review Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin D and Calcium. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US).
Rueda-Clausen, C.F., Silva, F.A., Lindarte, M.A., Villa-Roel, C., Gomez, E., Gutierrez, R., et al. (2007). Olive, soybean and palm oils intake have a similar acute detrimental effect over the endothelial function in healthy young subjects. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis, 17(1), 50–7.
Sacks, F.M., Lichtenstein, A.H., Wu, J.H.Y., Appel, L.J., Creager, M.A., Kris-Etherton, P.M., et al. (2017). Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association. Circulation, 136(3), e1-e23.
Samal, J.R.K., & Samal, I.R. (2017). Protein Supplements: Pros and Cons. J Diet Suppl, 1–7.
Sands, W.A., McNeal, J.R., Penitente, G., Murray, S.R., Nassar, L., Jemni, M., et al. (2016). Stretching the Spines of Gymnasts: A Review. Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.z.), 46, 315–327.
Satija, A., Bhupathiraju, S.N., Spiegelman, D., Chiuve, S.E., Manson, J.E., Willett, W., et al. (2017). Healthful and Unhealthful Plant-Based Diets and the Risk of Coronary Heart Disease in U.S. Adults. J Am Coll Cardiol, 70(4), 411–422.
Saunders, A.V., Davis, B.C., & Garg, M.L. (2013). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vegetarian diets. Med J Aust, 199(4 Suppl), S22–S26.
Saxe, G.A., Hébert, J.R., Carmody, J.F., Kabat-Zinn, J., Rosenzweig, P.H., Jarzobski, D., et al. (2001). Can diet in conjunction with stress reduction affect the rate of increase in prostate specific antigen after biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer? J Urol, 166(6), 2202–7.
Schoenfeld, B.J., Aragon, A.A., & Krieger, J.W. (2013). The effect of protein timing on muscle strength and hypertrophy: a meta-analysis. J Int Soc Sports Nutr, 10, 53.
Shridhar, K., Dhillon P.K., Bowen L., Kinra S., Bharathi A.V., Prabhakaran D., Reddy K.S., & Ebrahim S. (2014). Nutritional profile of Indian vegetarian diets--the Indian Migration Study (IMS). Nutr J, 13, 55.
Silva, M.-R.G., & Barata, P. (2016). Athletes and coaches’ gender inequality: the case of the gymnastics federation of Portugal. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 8(2), 187–196.
Silva, M.-R.G., & Paiva, T. (2015). Low energy availability and low body fat of female gymnasts before an international competition. Eur J Sport Sci, 15(7), 591–9.
Simopoulos, A.P. (2007). Omega-3 fatty acids and athletics. Curr Sports Med Rep, 6(4), 230–6.
Singh, P.N., Arthur, K.N., Orlich, M.J., James, W., Purty, A., Job, J.S., et al. (2014). Global epidemiology of obesity, vegetarian dietary patterns, and noncommunicable disease in Asian Indians. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 100(1), 359S–364S.
Sleeper, M.D., Kenyon, L.K., Elliott, J.M., & Cheng, M.S. (2016). Measuring sport-specific physical abilities in male gymnasts: the men’s gymnastics functional measurement tool. International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy, 11(7), 1082–1100.
Sluijs, I., Beulens, J.W.J., van der A.D.L., Spijkerman, A.M.W., Grobbee, D.E., et al. (2010). Dietary Intake of Total, Animal, and Vegetable Protein and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC)-NL Study. Diabetes Care, 33(1), 43–48.
Tachdjian, L. (2017). Venus Williams: Plant-Based Diet "Changed My Life". Obtained on 17th July 2017 from https://www.clearlyveg.com/blog/2017/01/16/venus-williams-plant-based-diet-changed-my-life.
Tang, J.E., Moore, D.R., Kujbida, G.W., Tarnopolosky, M.A., & Phillips, S.M. (2009). Ingestion of whey hydrolysate, casein, or soy protein isolate: effects on mixed muscle protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in young men. J Appl Physiol (1985), 107(3), 987–92.
Tantamango-Bartley, Y., Knutsen, S.F., Knutsen, R., Jacobsen, B.K., Fan, J., Beeson, W.L., et al. (2016). Are strict vegetarians protected against prostate cancer? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 103(1), 153–160.
Teixeira, S.R., Tappenden, K.A. Carson, L., Jones, R., Prabhudesai, M., Marshall, W.P., et al. (2004). Isolated soy protein consumption reduces urinary albumin excretion and improves the serum lipid profile in men with type 2 diabetes mellitus and nephropathy. J Nutr, 134(8), 1874–80.
Thedford, K., & Raj, S. (2011). A vegetarian diet for weight management. J Am Diet Assoc, 111(6), 816–8.
Torstveit, M., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. (2005). Participation in leanness sports but not training volume is associated with menstrual dysfunction: a national survey of 1276 elite athletes and controls. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 39(3), 141–147.
Turner-McGrievy, G., Mendes, T., & Crimarco, A. (2017). A plant-based diet for overweight and obesity prevention and treatment. J Geriatr Cardiol, 14(5), 369–374.
Turner-McGrievy, G.M., Barnard, N.D., Cohen, J, Jenkins, D.J., Gloede, L., & Green, A.A. (2008). Changes in nutrient intake and dietary quality among participants with type 2 diabetes following a low-fat vegan diet or a conventional diabetes diet for 22 weeks. J Am Diet Assoc, 108, 1636–1645.
Tuso, P.J., Ismail, M.H., Ha, B.P., & Bartolotto, C. (2013). Response to Drs Craig and John McDougall (Plant-Based Diets Are Not Nutritionally Deficient). Perm J, 17(4), 93.
USAGym (2016). USA-Gymnastics. USA Gymnastics Demographics. Retrieved 29.12.2016, from https://usagym.org/pages/aboutus/pages/demographics.html?prog=pb.
USAIM (1998). Institute of Medicine (US) Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes and its Panel on Folate, Other B Vitamins, and Choline. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US).
van Vilet, S., Burd, N.A., & van Loon, L.J. (2015). The Skeletal Muscle Anabolic Response to Plant- versus Animal-Based Protein Consumption. J Nutr, 145(9), 981–91.
Vannice, G., &Rasmussen, H. (2014). Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: dietary fatty acids for healthy adults. J Acad Nutr Diet, 114(1), 136–53.
Venderley, A.M., & Campbell, W.W. (2006). Vegetarian diets: nutritional considerations for athletes. Sports Med, 36(4), 293–305.
Veronese, N., Stubbs, B., Noale, M., Solmi, M., Vaona, A., Demurtas, J., et al. (2017). Fried potato consumption is associated with elevated mortality: an 8-y longitudinal cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr, 106(1), 162–167.
Visvanathan,R., Jayathilake,C., Chaminda Jayawardana, B., & Liyanage, R. (2016). Health-beneficial properties of potato and compounds of interest. J Sci Food Agric, 96(15), 4850–4860.
Viva (2017). Vegan & vegetarian sportspeople. Obtained on 15th August 2017 from https://www.viva.org.uk/vegan-vegetarian-sportspeople.
Vogel, R.A., Corretti, M.C., & Plotnick, G.D. (2000).The Postprandial Effect of Components of the Mediterranean Diet on Endothelial Function. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 36(5), 1455–60.
Waterlow, J.C. (1984). Kwashiorkor revisited: the pathogenesis of oedema in kwashiorkor and its significance. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg, 78(4), 436–41.
Wilkinson, S.B., Tarnopolsky, M.A., Macdonald, M.J., Macdonald, J.R., Armstrong, D., & Phillips, S.M. (2007). Consumption of fluid skim milk promotes greater muscle protein accretion after resistance exercise than does consumption of an isonitrogenous and isoenergetic soy-protein beverage. Am J Clin Nutr, 85(4), 1031–40.
Willett, W.C. (2002). Balancing Lifestyle and Genomics Research for Disease Prevention. Science, 296, 695–98.
Williams, K.A., & Patel, H. (2017). Healthy Plant-Based Diet: What Does it Really Mean? J Am Coll Cardiol, 70(4), 423–425.
Willis, K.S., Peterson, N.J., & Larson-Meyer, D.E. (2008). Should we be concerned about the vitamin D status of athletes? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab, 18(2), 204–24.
Wirnitzer, K., Sevfart, T., Leitzmann, C., Keller, M., Wirnitzer, G., Lechleitner, C., et al. (2016). Prevalence in running events and running performance of endurance runners following a vegetarian or vegan diet compared to non-vegetarian endurance runners: the NURMI Study. Springerplus, 5, 458.
Wright, N., Wilson, L., Smith, M., Duncan, B., & McHugh, P. (2017). The BROAD study: A randomised controlled trial using a whole food plant-based diet in the community for obesity, ischaemic heart disease or diabetes. Nutrition & Diabetes, 7, e256.
Yang, Y., Churchward-Venne, T.A., Burd, N.A., Breen, L., Tarnopolsky, M.A., & Phillips, S.M. (2012). Myofibrillar protein synthesis following ingestion of soy protein isolate at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men. Nutr Metab (Lond), 9(1), 57.
Ye, E.Q., Chacko, S.A., Chou, E.L., Kugizaki, M., & Liu, S. (2012). Greater whole-grain intake is associated with lower risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and weight gain. J Nutr, 142(7), 1304–13.
Yokoyama, Y., Levin, S.M., & Barnard, N.D. (2017). Association between plant-based diets and plasma lipids: a systematic review and meta-analysis, Nutrition Reviews, 75(9), 683–698.
Young, V.R., & Pellett, P.L. (1994). Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr, 59(5 Suppl), 1203S–1212S.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
How to Cite
