Viruses and Bacteria – Antiviral and Antibacterial Textile Materials: A Review Virusi in bakterije - protivirusni in protibakterijski tekstilni materiali - pregled

Protective textiles, such as antiviral and antimicrobial textiles, are essential for daily human health during pandemics. This paper focused on different studies of bacteria, the classification of viruses and features, different antibacterial and antiviral agents, and the manufacture of antibacterial and antiviral textiles and masks. This review primarily considered the representative specifications of ideal antiviral agents compatible with antimicrobial textile purposes.


Introduction
The global spread of COVID-19 has had serious economic, social and political consequences around the world.Some vaccines against COVID-19 were listed by the World Health Organization (WHO) for emergency use, while many people around the world have been vaccinated.However, personal protective measures should be taken in public places, and there is a growing need to produce antiviral and protective textiles against COVID-19 and other viruses.Textiles and materials are a breeding ground for the transmission of infectious diseases by microorganisms and viruses [1].The world today faces some extraordinary challenges in managing viral emergencies with the outbreak of COVID-19.With an ever-increasing death toll, COVID-19, the latest of three pandemics in the past two decades in addition to the SARS epidemic in 2002 and the MERS epidemic in 2012, has claimed millions of lives in many countries, according to the latest report of the WHO [2].It is important therefore to have antiviral textiles to protect people from unknown viruses before the development of a vaccine or a drug.This paper reviews different classes of bacteria and viruses, as well as different types of antibacterial and antiviral agents for textiles.

Virus features
Viruses originally caused disease.Viruses are small, from a few nanometres to larger than some bacteria, and can be 20,200 nm in length, while some can be 1,000 nm in length.Human cells are typically around 1,030 μm (microns) in diameter.For example, influenza and human immunodeficiency virus are approximately 100 nm in diameter.Poxviruses, such as the variola virus can be around 400 nm in length, while the dangerous Ebola and filoviruses are only 80 nm in diameter but spread in elongated threads that can reach lengths of over 1,000 nm.Megaviruses are about 400 nm in diameter and Pandoraviruses are about 1,000 nm long.All viruses are no smaller than bacteria; the size of the bacteria is typically around 2,000-3,000 nm, but some, known as mycobacteria, can be 10 times smaller and within the reach of these large viruses [3].Viruses need the internal environment of the cell to create new infectious virus particles.Viruses use cells' energy and machinery to make and collect new virions.Humans, plants, animals, bacteria and all living cells have double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) through their genetic material.Viruses have genomes, or genetic material, created from DNA or RNA (but not both).Genomes are not essentially double-stranded, and different virus types can have single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) genomes, while viruses with RNA genomes can be single-stranded or double-stranded.
A particular virus will have some type of nucleic acid genome.The size of the genome can vary in different viruses.

Virus structure
The nucleic acid genome plays an important role in the production of progeny virions.In order to protect the fragile nucleic acid from a serious situation, the virus surrounds its nucleic acid with a capsid, which is a small protein shell that is difficult to break.A capsid has one or more diverse models of proteins that can be repeated to make it flexible.Nucleic acid and a capsid together form the nucleocapsid of a virion.Viral genomes are generally very small.Genes encode the information to make proteins, while tiny genomes cannot encode different proteins.In addition, viruses have a lipid membrane surrounding the capsid referred to as an envelope, which derives from one of the cell membranes such as the plasma membrane [3].

Virus classification
In the 1970s, David Baltimore classified viruses into seven classes based on the type of nucleic acid genome and viral repetition strategy (Figure 1).The seven classes of the Baltimore classification are as follows: dsDNA viruses, ssDNA viruses, dsRNA viruses, positive-sense ssRNA viruses, negative-sense ssRNA viruses, RNA viruses that reverse transcribe and DNA viruses that reverse transcribe [4].

Class IV: Positive-sense single-stranded RNA (ssR-NA) viruses
Class IV ssRNA viruses can be read by ribosomes for decoding into proteins and have positive-sense RNA genomes.These viruses are separated into polycistronic mRNA and complex transcription viruses.Polycistronic mRNA is a polyprotein that is cleaved into different proteins.Astroviridae, Flaviviridae, Coronaviridae and Picornaviridae are some examples of this class.

Class V: Negative-sense single-stranded RNA (ssR-NA) viruses
Single-stranded RNA (ssRNA) viruses have a negative RNA genome and must be copied by a viral polymerase to obtain a clear and readable mRNA strand.The genomes of these viruses may or may not be segmented.Paramyxoviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Rhabodviridae are some examples of ssRNA viruses.

Class VI: Positive-sense ssRNA reverse transcriptase viruses
These viruses replicate via a DNA intermediate, have a positive sense and have a single-stranded RNA genome.RNA is converted into DNA by a reverse transcriptase, before which the DNA is inserted into the host genome and then translated by the enzyme integrase.Retroviruses such as HIV, Pseudoviridae and Metaviridae are some examples of ssRNA viruses.

Class VII: Double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) reverse transcriptase viruses
These viruses have a double-stranded DNA genome and replicate via ssRNA mediators.The dsDNA genome has gaps and could be a template for making mRNA.Conversely, RNA can be transcribed back into DNA for genome reproduction.The hepatitis B virus is an example of a dsDNA virus.On the other hand, the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) was asked to assign viruses to a taxonomic hierarchy (Figure 2).The taxonomy used family, genus, order and species to categorize viruses.Viruses are not classified under the same taxonomic tree as living organisms because they are not living [3][4].
The International Committee on the Taxonomy (ICT) of Viruses classified coronaviruses into the Coronaviridae family and the Nidovirales order.Toroviruses and coronaviruses are the two typical genera of the Coronaviridae family; they were also classified to the Coronavirinae subfamily.Subfamilies are formed based on rooted and unrooted genetic trees and partial nucleotide sequences of RNA-dependent RNA polymerase.So far, Coronavirinae have been recognized and divided into five genera: alpha (α) coronavirus, beta (β) coronavirus, gamma (γ) coronavirus, delta (δ) coronavirus and omicron coronavirus [5][6][7].

Virus spread and transmission
Viruses can be transmitted directly from one animal to another (sexual, respiratory, faecal-oral and blood), or via vertical transmission from parent to children, or through contaminated water and food.Some viruses, such as the measles mumps, polio, rubella and chickenpox viruses, are host-specific and only infect just humans.However, some viruses, such as influenza viruses, can be spread between humans and animals [8].

Bacteria
Bacteria are small single-celled organisms that are found everywhere on earth and are essential to ecosystems.Various strains of bacteria are harmless and some are even helpful and beneficial.Bacteria are classified and identified according to the interests of microbiologists and other scientists.The classification of bacteria may be done using different grouping methods, such as gram stain and bacterial cell wall, shape, mode of nutrition, temperature requirement, oxygen requirement, pH of growth, osmotic pressure requirement, number of flagella and spore formation (Figure 3).Amongst different classifications systems, the Gram stain, which was discovered by Danish microbiologist Hans Christian Gram in 1884, remains an important and useful technique until the present [9].It allows a large proportion of clinically important bacteria to be classified as either Gram positive or negative based on their morphology and differential staining properties [10].In 1872, Cohn classified bacteria to four major types depending, on their shapes: A. Cocci (spherical): These types of bacteria are unicellular, spherical or elliptical shape.Either they may remain as a single cell or may aggregate together for various configurations.They are classified as follows: • Monococcus: they are also called micrococcus and are represented by a single round shape.Example: Micrococcus flavus.Actinomycetes are branching filamentous bacteria, so called because of their fancied resemblance to the radiating rays of the sun when seen in tissue lesions (from actis meaning ray and mykes meaning fungus).Mycoplasmas are bacteria that are cell-wall deficient and thus do not possess a stable morphology.They occur as round or oval bodies, and as interlacing filaments [12].
On the basis of mode of nutrition, bacteria can be classified to Phototrophs, Chemotrophs, Autotrophs, and Heterotrophs [13].On the basis of temperature requirement, they can also be classified to Psychrophiles, Psychrotrops (facultative psychrophiles), Mesophiles, Thermophiles and Hypethermophiles [14].Bacteria classified on the basis of the pH of growth are divided into Acidophiles, Alkaliphiles and Neutrophiles [15].
Bacteria classified based on osmotic pressure requirement are divided into Halophiles, Extreme or Obligate Halophiles and Facultative Halophiles [16].Bacteria can also be classified as Atrichos, Monotrichous, Lophotrichous, Amphitrichous and Peritrichous based on flagella.
Based on spore formation, bacteria can be divided into spore-forming bacteria (endospore-forming bacteria and exospore-forming bacteria) and non-sporing bacteria [17].An antimicrobial agent kills microorganisms or inhibits their growth.Antimicrobial agents may be antibacterial, which work against bacteria; antifungal, which fight against fungi; microbiocides, which kill microbes; microbiostatic, growth inhibitors of microbes; and antiviral, which kill viruses [18].In addition, cyanovirin N, and 11 kDa protein from blue-green algae deactivates HIV-1, while sulfated polysaccharides from algae and algae have anti-HSV and anti-HIV properties [25].

Natural sources and plants
In other research, the effect of carrageenan/ cyclodextrin hydrogel/honey bee propolis extract on cationized cotton fabric was studied by Sharaf & Naggar in 2019.Propolis has therapeutic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antitumor properties.An innovative biodegradable and eco-friendly hydrogel was made from β-cyclodextrin, Kappa carrageenan encapsulated and honey bee propolis extract.They reported that treated fabric have antimicrobial activity and can be used as wound healing fabrics [26].
Sneezing micro-droplets can be easily inhibited.The most active compound in liquorice root in inhibiting the virus associated with SARS is glycyrrhizin.Glycyrrhizic acid (GLR), a triterpenoid saponin isolated primarily from liquorice root, is active against a variety of human viruses.Glycyrrhizic acid isolated from liquorice has antiviral activity and can deactivate the virus and stop replication.Droplet microbes are bound to the agent and infectious droplets are rapidly opened by hydrophilic action, resulting in virus exposure.The purifying and inhibitory properties of liquorice root quickly inactivate the virus.GL and GA can damage biomolecules, such as lipids, parts and DNA [27].
The antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal activities of some flavonoids were studied by Deliorman Orhana et al. in 2010.Flavonoids are natural elements with different phenolic structures found in fruits, vegetables, bark, grains, roots, flowers, stems, tea and wine.They reported that flavonoids effectively inhibited HSV-1 and isolated strains of E. faecalis [28].
In 2020, Fakharani et al. studied extracts from Spirulina platensis that exhibit antiviral activity against numerous viruses.Calcium spirulan is a natural sulfated polysaccharide.They reported that sulfoglycolipids have good antiviral activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) rather than preventing reverse transcriptase activity.Moreover, many peptides, such as cyclic ichthyopeptins A, depsipeptides and ichthyopeptins B extracted from Microcystis ichthyoblabe cultures, showed antiviral activity against the influenza A virus.Cyanobacterial lectins show antiviral activity against hepatitis virus, HSV, influenza virus and Ebola virus [29].Solanum rantonnetii methanol (80%) is non-toxic in cell culture and has antiviral activity against HCV.This extract is active at low concentrations.In 2014, Rashed et al. reported that quercetin 3-methyl ether and kaempferol 8-methyl ether produced from Solanum rantonnetii extracts have antiviral activity against HCV at high concentration [30].

Nanoparticles
In preventing the transmission of a virus, the principal purpose is to stop the virus from reaching healthy people.Nanomaterials have distinctive physical and chemical properties and have been applied to create recent antiviral agents [2].Nanotechnology uses many beneficial nanoparticle-based antiviral agents, together with nanomaterial coating strategies to prevent the virus from contaminating sensitive individuals.It can decrease viral spread exceptionally through satisfactory and easy-to-maintain results and solutions.Antiviral nanomaterials can inactivate multiple types of microbes through a specific platform.In addition, due to the nature of nanomaterials, they can inhibit virus attachment and inhibit virus entry into the cell [2].
Recently, several well-designed nanoparticles such as gold, silver, titanium and zinc nanoparticles, carbon dots, graphene oxide, quantum dots, nanoclusters, silicon materials, polymers and dendrimers have been shown to have significant antiviral ability.They have different antiviral activity and mechanism, and inhibition effectiveness [31][32].
Nanomaterials have large modifiable surface areas and can be functionalized with various molecules that can be used as nanocarriers, nanomedicines and nano-based vaccines to effectively engineer appropriate immunological memory [33].The use of nanoparticles and nanomaterials has been applied in many industries such as textiles, cosmetics, electronics and medicine [34].Functional carbon dots and carbon quantum dots can be used as antiviral agents [2].
In 2021, Li et al. reported that coating cell membrane with nanostructures, where the membrane is secured by a nanocore, may result in the avoidance of undesirable membrane fusion.They reported that cell membranes coated with nanobait successfully capture and divert Zika virus (ZIKV) away from healthy cells.To reduce the fusion property of the membrane, coating the lipid membrane with a nanoparticle core stabilizes the cell [33].

Metal and metal oxide-based nanoparticles (NPs)
Metal and the metal oxide-based NPs show antibacterial activity alone, but demonstrate superior antibiotic activity when combined with metal nanoparticles or metal oxide-based nanoparticles or composites with other metal nanoparticles or antibiotics or biomolecules [18].There are some studies on the antimicrobial properties of metal nanoparticles, which are affected by reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, the physical abrasion of the membrane due to interaction with nanoparticles, the loss of membrane integrity owing to nanoparticle binding, or by the release of metal ions from the nanoparticles.
Metal-based nanoparticles have impressive physico-chemical properties.Due to their tiny size and high specific surface, they can interact with microorganisms and viruses.Various metal and metal oxide-based nanoparticles, such as copper, silver, gold, zinc and titanium, have been provided as antibacterial.In general, host cell infection by viruses occurs through attachment, penetration, replication and budding mechanisms [35].
In contrast, metal-based nanoparticles may interact with a microorganism in three streps: first by attaching to the virus and inhibiting the entry of virus attachment into the cell; second by the generation of active oxygen and other ions and radicals sticking to the wall and completing the structure of viral proteins and nucleic acids; and finally by simulating the cell nucleus to strengthen the immune system to enhance host-cell response and inhibit viral potential and spread.
Antimicrobial nanomaterials can be applied as a coating through different processes, such as the electrophoretic deposition of lysozyme silver nanoparticles for medical purposes [2].Silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) can conveniently interact with the outer layers of a virus, circumventing their attachment and entry into the host cells.The typical particle size of Ag NPs can compromise antiviral activity.Some therapeutics, such as oseltamivir (OTV), zanamivir, aminoadamantane and amantadine, can be adopted as surface ligands for Ag NPs to boost antiviral properties.Other silver compounds, such as Ag 2 S, silver bis(citrato)germinate, AgNO 3 and silver acesulfame, are also considered effective antiviral materials [36].
Gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) have exceptional stability, biocompatibility and the ability to bind with biological ligands (bioconjugation), and can be used as antiviral agents.Au NPs can block viral particles and inhibit virus entry or attachment, and control the spread of a virus [32].
Copper oxide nanoparticles have great stability, broad antibacterial properties, are cost-effective and are used extensively in antibacterial materials [37].
Zinc oxide and titanium oxide have been effective in biological valuations.ZnO nanoparticles can easily surround the herpes virus and prevent the infection of the host cells.The mechanism of inhibition is based on the damaging of the lipid membrane and the blocking of virus attachment.
Moreover, some other metals and metal oxide-based anti-viruses, such as gallium and iron oxide or tin oxide (SnO 2 ), can be used for protective fabrics [39][40].
Nanoparticles have antiviral activity through various mechanisms, such as hepatitis B virus inactivation, virus capture and retention, the prevention of virus cell entry, and the blocking of virus replication and reproduction.
Ag-, Ti-and carbon-based nanomaterials have direct interaction with viruses and cause virus inactivation through various ways, depending on the nature of viruses and nanomaterials.A multi-walled carbon nanotube, negatively charged graphene oxide (GO), TiO 2 NPs, GO-conjugated AgNPs, AgNP-MHCs (aminopropyl-functionalized Fe 3 O 4 -SiO2 core-shell magnetic hybrid colloid-decorated AgNPs), copper ions in NPs and Au/CuS core-shell NPs can inactivate viruses.
Metal-based NPs and metal oxide-based NPs have antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties.In particular, copper oxide (CuO) and zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs are exceptionally effective against viruses and multiple bacterial strains, and can be applied on textiles and medical devices.Antibacterial CuO and ZnO nano metal oxides are generally safe on undamaged epidermis [34,41].Silver (Ag) has antimicrobial properties against many bacteria, fungi and viruses.Ag nanoparticles (AgNP) are utilized in fabrics, wound dressings, medical devices and deodorant sprays [6].Many researchers reported the effective antiviral activity of AgNPs against several human pathogenic viruses, such as respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza virus, norovirus, hepatitis B virus (HBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).In 2020, Jeremiah et al. reported that AgNPs are extremely powerful microbicides against SARS-CoV-2.AgNPs have cytotoxic effects and should be used with caution and can harm environmental ecosystems in the event of improper preparation and disposal.They concluded that the antiviral effect of AgNPs with a size of 2 to 15 nm was most effective [6].
Solid-state copper oxide (Cu 2 O) deactivate influenza A virus and bacteriophage Q beta well, but copper oxide (CuO) and silver sulfide (Ag 2 S) show little antiviral activity.Copper ions from copper chloride (CuCl 2 ) have a slight impact on the activity of bacteriophage Q beta, while copper ions deactivate influenza A. Silver ions from silver nitrate (AgNO 3 ) and silver (I) oxide (Ag 2 O) in solution demonstrate the good inactivation of influenza and the weak inactivation of bacteriophage Q beta.Solid-state Cu 2 O is more effective against both kinds of viruses, enveloped and non-enveloped, compared to silver compounds, owing to excellent an inactivation mechanism aided by direct contact.In addition, Cu 2 O is commonly available and inexpensive.Cu 2 O can also be combined with other biocidal chemicals, such as photocatalytic titanium oxide nanoparticles [42].In 1998, Puddua et al. investigated the antiviral impact of bovine lactoferrin saturated with metal ions (ferric, manganese or zinc ions) on the early steps of human HIV-1 infection.They reported that HIV-1 replication and syncytium formation were effectively inhibited by lactoferrins at a certain dose [43].

Carbon-based materials
Carbon atoms bind to each other in many ways with different binding energies, generating them to form different allotropes, such as carbon dots, single-wall or multi-wall carbon nanotubes and 2D graphene oxide.Graphene oxide has antipathogenic and antiviral properties against pseudorabies virus, which is a DNA virus, and porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus, which is an RNA virus.Graphene oxide and decreased graphene oxide demonstrated interesting antiviral properties due to their negative charges and monolayer structure.Negatively charged graphene oxide shows more electrostatic interaction with viruses, and enters the cell and destroys the structure of the virus.
Organic antiviral materials destroy pathogens by reacting on surface proteins or nucleic acids, or by terminating pathogen morphology or spreading through the generation of reactive oxygen species upon external stimulation.The antimicrobial properties of organic antiviral materials are separated into antiviral and photodynamic antiviral materials.Intrinsic antiviral material have a special chemical structure that can inactivate a virus.Numerous natural and synthetic compounds have intrinsic antiviral properties [35].

Povidoneiodine
The use of povidoneiodine (PVPI) is recognized in medical education.In vitro reviews of cell cultures infected with HIV and H 5 N 1 virus have revealed that PVPI has an antiviral implication, while the cell hosts were unchanged and survived.The utilization of PVPI has no toxic influence on thyroid function.Used intravenously, it has demonstrated substantial results against microbial, viral, fungal and parasitic infections, and has anti-inflammatory activity, especially in cases where antibiotics are ineffective.Its potential uses are as a blood disinfectant, to treat burns, to prevent cancer or to treat the H 5 N 1 avian influenza virus after it has been mutated, while there are other possible uses [44].

Chitosan
Chitosan, a biopolymer, has valuable properties, such as biorenewability, biodegradability, biocompatibility and non-toxicity, and has been studied extensively for its therapeutic and medicinal uses.The antibacterial and antifungal activities of chitosan have been the subject of a great deal of research.Chitosan only shows its antibacterial activity in an acidic media due to its poor solubility at pH values above 6.5.Chitosan derivatives such as carboxymethylchitosan (CMCS) also have good antimicrobial activity [45].Chitosan-based particles have been described as promising vehicles for ocular drug delivery, mainly due to their ability to bring the corneal and conjunctival surfaces into close contact, and because of their negligible toxic effects [46].To utilize the biocidal effect of some metal nanoparticles for the production of antibacterial textiles and fibres, an aqueous emulsion of chitosan nanoparticles encapsulating metal oxide can be prepared [47].

Photodynamic antiviral and antibacterial materials
Photodynamic antiviral materials are effective, broad-spectrum and long-acting pathogen killers, and are environmentally friendly.They are generally powered by light to generate reactive oxygen species that can selectively kill pathogens.Some photodynamic materials have immediate biocidal properties under dark conditions and low light [48].

Antimicrobial fabric and textile
Due to the presence of microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria and fungi, antimicrobial textile materials have been created that effectively protect against these pathogens.Antimicrobial textiles are active textiles that can kill microorganisms or prevent their growth.Recently, various types of antimicrobial textiles, such as antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral textiles, have been studied and manufactured (Figure 4).Modified methods are used to determine the antimicrobial properties of textiles against bacterial and fungal particles.These antimicrobial textiles are utilized in a range of applications, such as healthcare, hygiene, medicine, filtration, packaging and storage, sportswear, ventilation and water purification systems [49][50].In clinical and hospital environments where the mainly problem is virus transmission, it is necessary to use appropriate textiles that form a good barrier against the transmission of microorganisms, especially when wet.
There are two main procedures for producing antimicrobial and antiviral textiles.The first method is to mix the antiviral material with the polymer spinning solution and then spin it.The second method is through finishing, where the antiviral material is added to the fabric finishing agent via impregnation or the padding method to produce a fabric's antiviral function [51].Padding, grafting, spraying and cross-linking are some of the most applicable methods for producing antimicrobial textiles.The development of antimicrobial textiles made of synthetic fibres has facilitated new methods, such as compounding extrusion and melt blending.At the same time, the use of plasma treatments, colloidal solutions, magnetron sputtering, sol-gel processes, microencapsulation techniques, or even the in situ synthesis of different antimicrobials onto textile materials are new, effective and stable methods [52].
Different chemicals, such as mineral compounds (oxides, metal ions and photocatalysts), organic compounds (amines or quaternary ammonium compounds, phenols, biguanide, alcohols and aldehydes), natural compounds and organometallic compounds, can be used for the antimicrobial finishes of textile materials [53].In addition, antibacterial active protective technologies developed by blending antibacterial fibres into textiles could be another method for integrating antibacterial properties into textiles [54].
Using proper raw materials, suitable yarn constructions, appropriate weaving model and effective and ecofriendly antimicrobial finishing can reduce microorganism problems and virus transmission [55].Fabrics have three-dimensional structures and the antiviral treatment of them can reduce microorganism, disease transmission and the risk of infection in hospitals.Primarily in the hospital environment, there are many concerns about exposure to various microorganisms that can be easily transmitted from the environment to humans and cause various diseases.Innovative textile products can act as a barrier to reduce the risk of infection for people with compromised immune systems.In the hospital environment, there are many factors for human infection, despite the observance of hospital protocols.Using the suitable fabrics can reduce the risk of pathogens that cause discomfort to patients [55][56].
Textile fabrics, such as gowns and drapes, are used to care for and protect humans by inhibiting the transfer of microorganisms.Gowns are items of protective apparel designed to ensure the protection of the wearer from spread of infection should they come into contact with potentially infectious liquids and solid materials.Gowns can also prevent the transfer of pathogens to vulnerable patients with compromised immune systems [57].
Textile products for medical use can be reusable or disposable.Non-woven textiles with different compositions, such as viscose/polyester or polypropylene, are frequently used for disposable products.Alternatively, cotton/polyester blends, polyester or cotton are used for reusable textile materials.Reusable surgical gowns are more effective and ecological because of their superior water vapor transmission and the fact that they generate less solid waste.For some products, it essential to use laminates for better repellence.Textile fibres are generally classified as natural fibres (animal fibre, vegetable fibre and mineral fibres) and man-made fibres (regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres) [55].
Consequently, antibacterial finishing is carried out to give textiles improved resistance to microorganisms, to avoid the destruction and discoloration of the fibres, and to improve the durability and extended life of the textile materials, which plays an important role in hospitals and medical centres by minimizing the microbial colonization of textiles and the potential for transmission from fabric surfaces [58].Public awareness of infectious diseases has increased, and researchers in the textile industry have developed antimicrobial fabrics by adding various antibacterial and antiviral compounds [59].

Figure 4: Antimicrobial treated textile; antibacterial agents inhibit the growth of bacteria, antifungal agents prevent the growth of fungal and spore germination, and antiviral agents modify the surface structures of viruses [50]
In a 2018 research paper by Ren et al., non-woven fabrics were coated with 1-chloro-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-4-imidazolidinone (MC, a variety of N-halamines) using the pad-dry process.They reported that MC can successfully inactivate the AI virus in the suspension and interfere with the RNA of the AI virus.Fabrics used for air filtration can be coated with MC due to their actual microbial activity [60].In 2021, Garren et al. studied nitric oxide and its effect on viral infection.They reported that nitric oxide is a significant therapeutic choice for treating virus-based illnesses, such as skin infections and respiratory viral infections.Gaseous nitric oxide, as an extensive antiviral agent, and other nitric oxide donor therapies for viral infections are helpful and effective.Nitric oxide releasing materials relieve complications associated with viral infections [61].
In a review paper, Norrahim et al. discussed the fabrication of nanocellulose-based antimicrobial materials against viruses, bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa by employing variable functional groups, including aldehyde groups, quaternary ammonium, metal, metal oxide nanoparticles and chitosan.Nanocellulose alone cannot protect human beings from developing a wound infection as it is not an antimicrobial agent and should be used with antimicrobial agents through surface modification using biocidal agents, making them effective against wound infection [62].
In 2017, Ustaoglu Iyigundogdu et al. studied the application of sodium pentaborate pentahydrate and triclosan on cotton fabrics to produce antimicrobial textiles.They concluded that treating cotton fabric with 3% sodium pentaborate pentahydrate, 0.03% triclosan and 7% glucapone exhibited antibacterial and antifungal properties.In addition, treated cotton fabrics demonstrated good antibacterial and antiviral activity against adenovirus type 5 and poliovirus type 1, while sodium pentaborate pentahydrate and triclosan solution can be used for antimicrobial textile finishing.They reported that sulfated polysaccharides and copolymers of acrylic acid with vinyl alcohol sulfate demonstrate antiviral activity against human cytomegalovirus (CMV) [63].
N-halamine is an active organic synthetic antibacterial agent.It is generally used for the antibacterial modification of fibres, fabrics and non-wovens.N-halamine deposition is stable, non-volatile and effective.N-halamine can kill AI viruses in a short time and disrupt their genetic and repetition abilities.Many antiviral agents could be employed to develop protective clothing and bedding with antiviral activity against viruses.

Antiviral protective material -mask
In 2020, Macintyre and Chughtai reported that the use of masks by healthy people can be beneficial and prevent the spread of COVID-19.It also prevents the infection of health care worker and deaths from COVID-19, as aerosolization has been reported in the hospital environment [64].
Research on antimicrobial face masks started gaining momentum after the SARS-2003 epidemic.
With the onset of COVID-19, the spike in demand for antimicrobial face masks has resulted in a spike in market share [65][66].
Like many diseases, COVID-19 can be spread by an infected and sick person through the emission or exhalation of bodily fluids or aerosol particles that carry the virus, and can attach to multiple sites and surfaces and thus be touched by the recipient [67].Aerosol pathogens are a main source of respiratory diseases and body-to-body transmission.Respiratory protection and air transfer parameters are integrated in a complex system that can be divided into different two-way mechanisms, such as release, infection, filtration and protection.Aerosol particles vary in size and play an important role in the spread of airborne viruses.Therefore, further studies are urgently needed to curb the spread of viral infections.The use of ventilators can be an actual non-pharmaceutical intervention to reduce the spread of viruses, primarily through use by people in surrounding locations who come into contact with a person showing pandemic-like signs.
The rapid spread of COVID-19 led to an international quarantine in numerous countries.The COVID-19 epidemic has caused significant financial damage around the world.Researchers were very curious about how best to protect people before vaccines were available.The corona virus spreads primarily via saliva droplets.Controlling the spread of the virus in the early stages thus represents a great opportunity.A face mask can limit the spread of the virus inside and outside the mask [68].The main material of the mask is non-woven fabric, which can prevent the virus through filtration.Conventional masks cannot kill the viruses and, after use and disposal, are prone to cross-infection and the development of another source of infection.By adding antiviral effects to masks, they last longer, are more efficient and cause fewer disposal problems [48].Medical protective masks usually consist of fleece layers, such as spunbonded and melt-blown fleece.Interception, inertial impact and electrostatic precipitation are the mechanisms of filtration in protective masks.
The maximum filter performance of normal filter materials is 85%.Electret treatment can be used to improve the filtration efficiency of surgical masks.Electret treatment gives filter material, such as a mask, a positive charge and can increase filter efficacy to as much as 95%.Bacteria, viruses and aerosols are adversely charged and are blocked by the positively charged fibres in the masks.Different parameters, such as fibre diameter, fibre charge, filtration thickness, packing density and particles diameter, density, and velocity can affect protection performance.Proper use and handling are also very important, as improper use and handling could increase the risk of pathogens transmission, especially during the COVID-19 epidemic [68].The filtration systems of masks can be functionalized by adding antiviral agents and fabricating reusable virus inactivating devices.The utilization of antiviral protective masks can minimize the threat of transmission of infectious agents through contaminated masks.Both inorganic and organic materials and composites can be employed to manufacture antiviral masks and fabrics [48].Pathogenic viruses are small in size and cause diseases, such as measles, the common cold, flu, mumps, rubella, pneumonia and chickenpox, and these viruses should be removed from the air to increase public health and protect people from epidemics or pandemics [69].
The utilization of face masks can protect the wearer's nose and mouth from vapor droplets that contain viruses or other infectious pathogens.However, improper use and disposal can increase the danger of pathogen transmission significantly.On the other hand, copper oxide demonstrates excellent antiviral properties.Copper oxide can be incorporated into polymeric materials, giving them strong antibacterial activity and biocidal properties.Borkow et al. reported the incorporation of copper oxide into textile fibres, latex and other polymer products.Products treated with copper oxide retain their broad spectrum of antimicrobial and antiviral properties.They reported impregnating N95 disposable respirators (masks that filter 95% of 0.3 micron particles) with copper oxide, giving them effective biocidal anti-influenza properties without altering their physical properties.The utilization of biocide masks can significantly reduce the threat of contamination of hands or surroundings and after infection [70].Commercial medical masks are inexpensive, but do not protect against airborne viruses.The surface of inexpensive filters can be modified with antiviral agents to give them antiviral properties [69]."PU30" is developed by a group of Hong Kong Polytechnic University (PolyU) researchers.It is an antiviral, washable and reusable face mask that can be used 30 times.This anti-virus 3D printing material can kill the most common viruses, bacteria and the COVID-19 virus on surfaces.The main components of the material are resins and antiviral agents, such as cationic compounds, which can damage the membrane of the virus and eradicate its structure to kill the virus and bacteria.The research team states that PU30 can kill 70% of the COVID-19 virus and other viruses/bacteria surviving on a surface within two minutes, eliminates more than 90% of viruses within 10 minutes, and kills almost all viruses and bacteria in 20 minutes.
The PU30 face mask consists of 1) an outer layer containing cotton fabric treated with a hydrophobic cationic antiseptic coating, 2) a middle layer that contains a PTFE membrane with high filtration efficiency, and 3) an inner layer that is made of skin-friendly cotton Lycra fabric.They found that Bacterial Filtration Efficiency (BFE) was more than 95% after 30 washes in boiling water [71][72].The disinfection components of the material are embedded in the products rather than coated on the surface, while daily cleaning with disinfectants such as bleach does not compromise its anti-virus performance.In 2020, Ka-Po Lee et al. from the PolyU team investigated the key aspects affecting the comfort of reusable face masks, but did not calculate antimicrobial or antiviral potential.Seven different mask types were selected and subjected to multiple tests, such as air and water vapor permeability, thermal conductivity and a wearing test.They concluded that washable face masks generated from thin layers of low-density knit fabric and a permeable filter are more breathable.
Mask comfort and breathability depend on various factors, such as fabric thickness, structure and density, fibre content, filter permeability, microclimate and fit.A low-density, thin-knit washable mask with a filter with good permeability is more breathable.It was also found that masks with sufficiently good heat-conducting materials, such as copper, and good water vapor permeability are more comfortable to wear.This allows moisture and heat to be released into the environment more easily.Proper mask fitting plays an essential role in measuring the quality of a mask, as it affects the breathability and benefit of the mask.Tight masks can irritate the skin [73].
There are different classes of antibacterial agents that can be properly used in various combinations to produce an innovative and effective antimicrobial face mask.Among several antibacterial agents, Ag and Cu [70] pervaded antimicrobial face masks are more popular due to their high reactivity and excellent antimicrobial efficacy in nano-forms, although the detachment of nanoparticles from the face mask and associated nanotoxicity are concerns.Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles incorporated through the electrospinning and melt-blowing techniques have shown less leaching and more stability.New classes of antibacterial agents, such as antimicrobial polymers (with active moieties, such as antimicrobial peptides, QACs, iodine and N-halamine compounds), NaCl, and natural compounds, such as mangosteen extracts, Folium Plectranthii amboinicii oil, extracts of Scutellaria baicalensis extracts, Vitex trifolia, Punica granatum, Allium sativum, are recognized as effective against various microorganisms including viruses.Active moieties, such as N-halamines, QACs, PEI, BP, polypyrrole and inorganic groups (mostly metals), have been incorporated to yield various antimicrobial polymers suitable for making a reusable face mask.Among these, N-halamine and QACs have proven very effectives against a broad spectrum of microorganisms.Bath coating, spray coating and immobilisation via carriers have been employed to yield QAC-modified antimicrobial fabrics.
The efficiency of antimicrobial face masks should be evaluated for both antibacterial and antiviral activities to establish the claim of "antimicrobial face mask" on more substantial grounds for the development of protective face masks.There should be a thorough evaluation of the biotoxicity and ecotoxicity associated with antimicrobial agents and the antimicrobial face masks.The risk of unknown toxicity calls for the proper assessment of the skin compatibility and stability of antimicrobial coatings.Therefore, proper use, reuse and disposal protocol should be designed to avail the full benefits.In short, there are ample opportunities for various stakeholders who deal with antimicrobial masks to develop affordable, safe, and efficient antimicrobial face masks that can overcome the challenges present with single-use face masks [65,74].
6 Methods for testing the antimicrobial and antiviral activities of textile fabrics to determine the antibacterial effect of textiles with an antibacterial finish.Qualitative or agar diffusion methods are easy to perform, rapid and beneficial for testing a large amount of samples.Textile samples should be contacted with bacterial cells using nutrient agar plates.The bacterial activity of qualitative methods is calculated using halo formation, where missing bacteria immediately grow around the edges of samples.The halo size embodies the potential for the antimicrobial characteristics of samples, but cannot be used as a quantitative method.Quantitative or absorption methods take more time and material than qualitative methods.In quantitative methods, a tiny volume of bacteria comes into contact with swatches, permitting all of the liquid to be absorbed.After incubation, bacteria are eluted from the tissue and the total bacterial count is fixed by serial dilution.Antimicrobial activity is determined via percentage reduction, and validated together with a control sample that is untreated and without an antimicrobial agent [75].
Their purpose is to check the ability of antibacterial-treated textiles to avoid microbial growth and to kill microorganisms over a specified period time.The absorption, printing and transfer methods are three types of quantitative tests set out in the ISO 20743 standard.The AATCC 100 test method is a for antimicrobials.The AATCC 100 test method quantitatively tests the capacity of fabrics and textiles to inhibit the development of microorganisms or kill them over a 24-hour contact period.To calculate the antiviral properties of treated textile fabrics, a virus suspension was first dropped onto textile fabrics.After a pre-defined period of time, the fabrics were washed, and the infectious viral titer was determined using the PFU test method.The adsorption of a virus by a textile and the virus inactivation caused by the textile are fundamentally important.The antiviral properties of treated fabrics depend on treatment conditions, such as temperature, contact time, EMEM concentration and the type of fabric, as well as the test virus type.
In 2017, Imoto et al. found that experimental conditions had a material affect on virus infectivity titers.Antiviral properties should be evaluated under stable conditions for viruses, at a lower temperature (4 °C) and at a lower EMEM concentration (1/10 EMEM) [76].In 2007, Shahidi et al. studied the antibacterial properties of fabrics and testing methods.They reported that two types of tests are available to evaluate the antibacterial properties of textiles: agarbased inhibition zone tests and bacterial count tests.The agar test (halo method) is a well-established approach for semi-quantitative analysis.A specific piece of cloth was placed on a bacterial culture spread on a medium.Various gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria can be selected for an antibacterial test.The dish was then incubated at 37 8 °C for 24 hours.Also used was a medium comprising the peptone mixture: 1.5, neutral red: 0.03, crystal violet: 0.001 and agar: 13.5.Samples were incubated under regulated conditions.The area around the sample, called the halo, indicates that bacterial growth has been inhibited and demonstrates the usefulness of the antibacterial sample.
Bacterial count tests are technical and time consuming compared to the halo method.There is, however, a quantitative evaluation of the usefulness of antibacterial treatment.Bacterial growth medium such as Luria-Bertani medium (LB) broth can be utilized in a bacterial count test.Bacteria was dropped into 10 ml of LB broth to reach a cell concentration of 10 8 (CFU)/mL and then diluted to a cell concentration of 10 6 (CFU)/mL.The swatches (size 1×1 cm 2 ) were placed in a 1 ml bacterial suspension and all samples were incubated at 37 °C for 24 hours.Previously, 100 µL of solution was sought from each incubated sample and spread onto an agar plate.All plates were incubated again for 24 hours and the colonies formed on them were counted [59,77].
Recently, some viruses, such as SARS-CoV-1, MERS and SARS-CoV-2, have affected human life, and various antiviral products have been produced on the market.Antiviral textiles were also produced, while there was a need for an integrated test method to evaluate the antiviral effect of textile products.ISO 18184, a test method for evaluating the antiviral activity of textile products, was first introduced in 2014 and then revised in 2019 [78].
ISO 18184 is used for textile products that are hydrophilic in nature and can be used to calculate the antiviral activity of textile materials, such as woven, non-woven and knitted fabrics, yarns, active wear, socks, daily wear, health care products, such as scrubs, masks, and surgical clothing, and other home textiles [50].
For sample preparation, nine sterilized control samples (untreated) are required to determine the infectious titer of the virus immediately after inoculation to determine the residual infectious titer of the virus after inoculation for the duration of contact (between two and 24 hours), while Cytotoxicity analysis is also used.In addition, six sterilized test samples are used to determine the residual infectious titer of the virus after inoculation with the treated sample, which is used in contact with the control sample and for cytotoxicity analysis.
For the test, control and treated samples are placed in separate sterile plates and 200 µL of virus is inoculated on both control and treated samples.After virus inoculation, 20 ml of SCDLP (used as neutralizing solution) is added to three control samples.After the pre-defined contact period, 20 ml of SCDLP broth is added to three treated and three untreated samples to recover residual virus.
The washing solution is serially diluted up to 10 dilutions and the infectious titer of recovered virus is determined either by plaque assay or using the TCID50 method.Other assays can also be used based on the virus strain.
The antiviral activity is determined using the following equation: where, M v represents the antiviral activity value, Log10 (V a ) represents the logarithm average of three infectivity titer values immediately after inoculation of the control specimen, and Log10 (V c ) represents the logarithm average of three infectivity titer values after specific contact time with the test specimen.
In ISO 18184, the antiviral performance of the textile product is considered good if the log value is between 2 and 3.If the log value is greater than or equal to 3, the antiviral performance of textile product is considered excellent [74].For hydrophobic textiles, ISO 21702 is used to evaluate antiviral activity.ISO 21702 is a unified test protocol that measures antiviral activity on non-porous and plastic surfaces, designed to provide protection against viruses.
In 2023, Nefedova et al. investigated the antiviral properties of knitted polyester textiles treated by CeO 2 nanoparticles and SiO 2 nanoparticles with quaternary ammonium surfactant CTAB (CTAB@ SiO 2 ) using the spray depositing method.The antiviral effect of treated textiles was evaluated against porcine transmissible gastroenteritis viruses TGEV and SARS-CoV-2.The antiviral effect of the used nanomaterials was measured in colloidal form.They concluded that the antiviral effect of nanomaterials decreased after their deposition on the textile surface compared to the colloidal state.
They concluded that the antiviral activity of textiles cannot be predicted from the antiviral efficacy of the deposited compounds in a colloid state, and that additional attention should be given to the prolonged efficacy of antiviral treated textiles [79].
In 2022, Shen et al. studied antibacterial and antiviral cotton fabric treated with diphenolic acid (DPA) using the pad-dry-cure method.They demonstrated that diphenolic acid molecules were covalently linked onto cotton fibre surfaces through an esterification reaction between their carboxyl groups and the hydroxyl groups of cellulose on the fibre surfaces.The DPA phenolic groups induced onto the cotton fibres facilitated the destruction of pathogens via protein affinity interaction.They concluded that DPA modified fabrics have high bacteriostatic reduction rates against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus, and also have excellent antivirus effect that facilitate rapid virus inactivation in less than 20 minutes, without any damage to the cotton fibre structure.The treated cotton fabrics were also deemed safe for human skin [80].

Durability
Durability against simulated healthcare washing is an important property for sport and medical textiles.Durability can be achieved by optimizing the textile finishing methods.Antibacterial finishing is usually carried out to give textiles improved resilience against microorganisms to prevent the destruction of fibres and discoloration, and the increased durability of textiles with a longer life, which plays an important role in addressing hygiene in clinical and sensitive environments by minimizing the microbial colonization of textiles and the potential for transfer from fabric surfaces.
In 2020, Wang et al. studied the antimicrobial agent polybiguanide derivative -poly(hexamethylenebiguanide).The pad-dry-cure method was used to apply PHMB to cotton fabrics.They concluded that the optimum finishing conditions can impart excellent durability to fabrics expected to undergo repeated simulated healthcare washing.The fabric samples showed 100% bactericidal effect after 52 washing cycles, and 104 washings slightly reduced the bactericidal activity.They reported that both simulated healthcare washing and coating treatment have a negative effect on the hand feel behaviour and tearing strength of cotton fabric.Antibacterial textile finishing should not have a negative effect on textile materials [1].
In 2022, Novi et al. studied antimicrobial zinc nanocomposite textiles, fabricated using a novel Crescoating process.Zinc nanoparticles were grown in situ within the bulk of different natural and synthetic fabrics to form safe and durable nanocomposites.The zinc nanocomposite textiles showed an unprecedented microbial reduction of 99.99% (4 log10) to 99.9999% (6 log10) within 24 hours on the most common gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and fungal pathogens.Additionally, the antimicrobial activity remained intact even after 100 laundry cycles, demonstrating the high longevity and durability of a textile that was non-irritating and hypoallergenic [81].

Conclusions and future trends
Today, the need for antiviral and antimicrobial textiles is becoming important.Undoubtedly, antimicrobial textiles are a very important field of research, and a cause of market expansion due to societal needs.Factors that prove the importance of this category includes: different textile substrates, such as natural, synthetic and blends thereof, varied antimicrobial finishing materials, such as organic and synthetic compounds, synthetic polymers, natural and naturally-derived compounds, metals and metal oxides, raw or functionalized silica microand nanoparticles, the broad range of processing techniques, such as grafting, microencapsulation, coating and copolymerization, plasma processing, electrospinning, sol-gel methods, exhaustion and the pad-dry-cure method, and final consumption and applications, such as personal protective clothing and masks, wound dressings, water and air filtration media, sports-and footwear, hospitals and hotels beddings.
Textiles with different synthesized chemicals, such as nanoparticles, metal compounds, triclosan, povidone iodine, acidic polymer and some surfactant, or natural extracts, have been treated to impart antiviral properties.Most bio-extract-treated or chemical-treated textiles demonstrate exceptional antiviral property.These antiviral agents and antiviral finishing processes can be used on various textile materials to fight the SARS-CoV-2 virus and other viruses, and thus protect human health.Antiviral textiles are very important, and this area requires additional research for the development of unique and new technologies.Currently, there is a fundamental need to produce cost-effective, environmentally friendly, safe and high-performance antiviral textiles and masks.Cooperation between experts in textile science, microbiology and pharmaceuticals is necessary for the realization of industrial production and the manufacture of antiviral textiles, and plays an important role in the protection of people.Hence, future research should focus on identifying the potential for natural antimicrobial agents.Given that the use of masks and antimicrobial textiles is increasing, the disposal of antimicrobial textiles should be properly managed, so that it does not become a problem like plastic waste.

Figure 1 :
Figure 1: Baltimore classification for viruses and examples

C.
Vibro (comma): the vibro are the curved, comma-shaped bacteria and represented by a single genus.Example: Vibro cholerae.D. Spirilla (spiral): these types of bacteria are spiral or spring-like with multiple curvature and termi-nal flagella.Example: Spirillum volutans [11].

Figure 3 :
Figure 3: Classification of bacteria ions that are released from CuO nanoparticles can produce reactive oxygen species (ROS).They can collapse HSV capsid integrity, damaging the entire genome.Cuprous oxide (Cu 2 O) nanoparticles also have antiviral properties.They can attach and enter to HCV virions.